Biographies

"As a general rule we do not want much encouragement to talk about ourselves; yet this little book is the result of a friendly suggestion, and even of a little friendly pressure. I defended myself with some spirit; but, with characteristic tenacity, the friendly voice insisted: "You know, you really must." It was not an argument, but I submitted at once. If one must!. . ."

"You perceive the force of a word. He who wants to persuade should put his trust, not in the right argument, but in the right word. The power of sound has always been greater than the power of sense. I don't say this by way of disparagement. It is better for mankind to be impressionable than reflective. Nothing humanely great — great, I mean, as affecting a whole mass of lives — has come from reflection. On the other hand, you cannot fail to see the power of mere words; such words as Glory, for instance, or Pity. I won't mention any more. They are not far to seek. Shouted with perseverance, with ardour, with conviction, these two by their sound alone have set whole nations in motion and upheaved the dry, hard ground on which rests our whole social fabric. There's "virtue" for you if you like!. . . Of course the accent must be attended to. The right accent. That's very important. The capacious lung, the thundering or the tender vocal chords. Don't talk to me of your Archimedes' lever. He was an absent-minded person with a mathematical imagination. Mathematics command all my respect, but I have no use for engines. Give me the right word and the right accent and I will move the world."

"Once upon a time there lived an Emperor who was a sage and something of a literary man. He jotted down on ivory tablets thoughts, maxims, reflections which chance has preserved for the edification of posterity. Amongst other sayings — I am quoting from memory — I remember this solemn admonition: "Let all thy words have the accent of heroic truth." The accent of heroic truth! This is very fine, but I am thinking that it is an easy matter for an austere Emperor to jot down grandiose advice. Most of the working truths on this earth are humble, not heroic: and there have been times in the history of mankind when the accents of heroic truth have moved it to nothing but derision. Nobody will expect to find between the covers of this little book words of extraordinary potency or accents of irresistible heroism. However humiliating for my self-esteem, I must confess that the counsels of Marcus Aurelius are not for me. They are more fit for a moralist than for an artist. Truth of a modest sort I can promise you, and also sincerity. That complete, praise-worthy sincerity which, while it delivers one into the hands of one's enemies, is as likely as not to embroil one with one's friends."

""Embroil" is perhaps too strong an expression. I can't imagine either amongst my enemies or my friends a being so hard up for something to do as to quarrel with me."

"I know that a novelist lives in his work. He stands there, the only reality in an invented world, amongst imaginary things, happenings, and people. Writing about them, he is only writing about himself. But the disclosure is not complete. He remains to a certain extent a figure behind the veil; a suspected rather than a seen presence — a movement and a voice behind the draperies of fiction. In these personal notes there is no such veil. And I cannot help thinking of a passage in the "Imitation of Christ" where the ascetic author, who knew life so profoundly, says that "there are persons esteemed on their reputation who by showing themselves destroy the opinion one had of them." This is the danger incurred by an author of fiction who sets out to talk about himself without disguise."

"While these reminiscent pages were appearing serially I was remonstrated with for bad economy; as if such writing were a form of self-indulgence wasting the substance of future volumes. It seems that I am not sufficiently literary. Indeed a man who never wrote a line for print till he was thirty-six cannot bring himself to look upon his existence and his experience, upon the sum of his thoughts, sensations and emotions, upon his memories and his regrets, and the whole possession of his past, as only so much material for his hands. Once before, some three years ago, when I published "The Mirror of the Sea," a volume of impressions and memories, the same remarks were made to me. Practical remarks. But, truth to say, I have never understood the kind of thrift they recommended. I wanted to pay my tribute to the sea, its ships and its men, to whom I remain indebted for so much which has gone to make me what I am. That seemed to me the only shape in which I could offer it to their shades. There could not be a question in my mind of anything else. It is quite possible that I am a bad economist; but it is certain that I am incorrigible."

"In my two exclusively sea books, "The Nigger of the 'Narcissus'" and "The Mirror of the Sea" (and in the few short sea stories like "Youth" and "Typhoon"), I have tried with an almost filial regard to render the vibration of life in the great world of waters, in the hearts of the simple men who have for ages traversed its solitudes, and also that something sentient which seems to dwell in ships — the creatures of their hands and the objects of their care."

"One's literary life must turn frequently for sustenance to memories and seek discourse with the shades; unless one has made up one's mind to write only in order to reprove mankind for what it is, or praise it for what it is not, or — generally — to teach it how to behave. Being neither quarrelsome, nor a flatterer, nor a sage, I have done none of these things; and I am prepared to put up serenely with the insignificance which attaches to persons who are not meddlesome in some way or other. But resignation is not indifference. I would not like to be left standing as a mere spectator on the bank of the great stream carrying onwards so many lives. I would fain claim for myself the faculty of so much insight as can be expressed in a voice of sympathy and compassion."

"It seems to me that in one, at least, authoritative quarter of criticism I am suspected of a certain unemotional, grim acceptance of facts; of what the French would call secheresse du coeur. Fifteen years of unbroken silence before praise or blame testify sufficiently to my respect for criticism, that fine flower of personal expression in the garden of letters."

"My answer is that if it be true that every novel contains an element of autobiography — and this can hardly be denied, since the creator can only express himself in his creation — then there are some of us to whom an open display of sentiment is repugnant. I would not unduly praise the virtue of restraint. It is often merely temperamental. But it is not always a sign of coldness. It may be pride. There can be nothing more humiliating than to see the shaft of one's emotion miss the mark either of laughter or tears. Nothing more humiliating! And this for the reason that should the mark be missed, should the open display of emotion fail to move, then it must perish unavoidably in disgust or contempt. No artist can be reproached for shrinking from a risk which only fools run to meet and only genius dare confront with impunity. In a task which mainly consists in laying one's soul more or less bare to the world, a regard for decency, even at the cost of success, is but the regard for one's own dignity which is inseparably united with the dignity of one's work. And then — it is very difficult to be wholly joyous or wholly sad on this earth. The comic, when it is human, soon takes upon itself a face of pain; and some of our griefs (some only, not all, for it is the capacity for suffering which makes man august in the eyes of men) have their source in weaknesses which must be recognised with smiling compassion as the common inheritance of us all. Joy and sorrow in this world pass into each other, mingling their forms and their murmurs in the twilight of life as mysterious as an over-shadowed ocean, while the dazzling brightness of supreme hopes lies far off, fascinating and still, on the distant edge of the horizon."

"Yes! I too would like to hold the magic wand giving that command over laughter and tears which is declared to be the highest achievement of imaginative literature. Only, to be a great magician one must surrender oneself to occult and irresponsible powers, either outside or within one's own breast. We have all heard of simple men selling their souls for love or power to some grotesque devil. The most ordinary intelligence can perceive without much reflection that anything of the sort is bound to be a fool's bargain. I don't lay claim to particular wisdom because of my dislike and distrust of such transactions."

"It may be my sea-training acting upon a natural disposition to keep good hold on the one thing really mine, but the fact is that I have a positive horror of losing even for one moving moment that full possession of myself which is the first condition of good service. And I have carried my notion of good service from my earlier into my later existence. I, who have never sought in the written word anything else but a form of the Beautiful, I have carried over that article of creed from the decks of ships to the more circumscribed space of my desk; and by that act, I suppose, I have become permanently imperfect in the eyes of the ineffable company of pure esthetes."

"As in political so in literary action a man wins friends for himself mostly by the passion of his prejudices and by the consistent narrowness of his outlook. But I have never been able to love what was not lovable or hate what was not hateful, out of deference for some general principle. Whether there be any courage in making this admission I know not. After the middle turn of life's way we consider dangers and joys with a tranquil mind. So I proceed in peace to declare that I have always suspected in the effort to bring into play the extremities of emotions the debasing touch of insincerity. In order to move others deeply we must deliberately allow ourselves to be carried away beyond the bounds of our normal sensibility — innocently enough perhaps and of necessity, like an actor who raises his voice on the stage above the pitch of natural conversation — but still we have to do that. And surely this is no great sin. But the danger lies in the writer becoming the victim of his own exaggeration, losing the exact notion of sincerity, and in the end coming to despise truth itself as something too cold, too blunt for his purpose — as, in fact, not good enough for his insistent emotion. From laughter and tears the descent is easy to snivelling and giggles. These may seem selfish considerations; but you can't, in sound morals, condemn a man for taking care of his own integrity. It is his clear duty. And least of all you can condemn an artist pursuing, however humbly and imperfectly, a creative aim. In that interior world where his thought and his emotions go seeking for the experience of imagined adventures, there are no policemen, no law, no pressure of circumstance or dread of opinion to keep him within bounds. Who then is going to say Nay to his temptations if not his conscience?"

"I think that all ambitions are lawful except those which climb upwards on the miseries or credulities of mankind. All intellectual and artistic ambitions are permissible, up to and even beyond the limit of prudent sanity. They can hurt no one. If they are mad, then so much the worse for the artist. Indeed, as virtue is said to be, such ambitions are their own reward."

"An historian of hearts is not an historian of emotions, yet he penetrates further, restrained as he may be, since his aim is to reach the very fount of laughter and tears. The sight of human affairs deserves admiration and pity. They are worthy of respect too. And he is not insensible who pays them the undemonstrative tribute of a sigh which is not a sob, and of a smile which is not a grin. Resignation, not mystic, not detached, but resignation open-eyed, conscious and informed by love, is the only one of our feelings for which it is impossible to become a sham. Not that I think resignation the last word of wisdom. I am too much the creature of my time for that. But I think that the proper wisdom is to will what the gods will without perhaps being certain what their will is — or even if they have a will of their own. And in this matter of life and art it is not the Why that matters so much to our happiness as the How. As the Frenchman said, "Il y a toujours la maniere." Very true. Yes. There is the manner. The manner in laughter, in tears, in irony, in indignations and enthusiasms, in judgments — and even in love. The manner in which, as in the features and character of a human face, the inner truth is foreshadowed for those who know how to look at their kind."

"Those who read me know my conviction that the world, the temporal world, rests on a few very simple ideas; so simple that they must be as old as the hills. It rests notably, amongst others, on the idea of Fidelity. At a time when nothing which is not revolutionary in some way or other can expect to attract much attention I have not been revolutionary in my writings. The revolutionary spirit is mighty convenient in this, that it frees one from all scruples as regards ideas. Its hard, absolute optimism is repulsive to my mind by the menace of fanaticism and intolerance it contains. No doubt one should smile at these things; but, imperfect Esthete, I am no better Philosopher. All claim to special righteousness awakens in me that scorn and anger from which a philosophical mind should be free. . ."

"I have never been very well acquainted with the art of conversation — that art which, I understand, is supposed to be lost now. My young days, the days when one's habits and character are formed, have been rather familiar with long silences."

"I admit that almost anything, anything in the world, would serve as a good reason for not writing at all. But since I have written them, all I want to say in their defence is that these memories put down without any regard for established conventions have not been thrown off without system and purpose. They have their hope and their aim."

"Books may be written in all sorts of places. Verbal inspiration may enter the berth of a mariner on board a ship frozen fast in a river in the middle of a town..."

"What are you always scribbling there, if it's fair to ask?" It was a fair enough question, but I did not answer him, and simply turned the pad over with a movement of instinctive secrecy: I could not have told him he had put to flight the psychology of Nina Almayer, her opening speech of the tenth chapter and the words of Mrs. Almayer's wisdom which were to follow in the ominous oncoming of a tropical night. I could not have told him that Nina had said: "It has set at last."

"As far as my feelings were concerned I did not wish to be in that steamer at that time and in those circumstances. And perhaps I was not even wanted there in the usual sense in which a ship "wants" an officer. It was the first and last instance in my sea life when I served ship-owners who have remained completely shadowy to my apprehension. I do not mean this for the well-known firm of London ship-brokers which had chartered the ship to the, I will not say short-lived, but ephemeral Franco-Canadian Transport Company. A death leaves something behind, but there was never anything tangible left from the F.C.T.C. It flourished no longer than roses live, and unlike the roses it blossomed in the dead of winter, emitted a sort of faint perfume of adventure and died before spring set in. But indubitably it was a company, it had even a house-flag, all white with the letters F.C.T.C. artfully tangled up in a complicated monogram. We flew it at our main-mast head, and now I have come to the conclusion that it was the only flag of its kind in existence."

"I had given myself up to the idleness of a haunted man who looks for nothing but words wherein to capture his visions. But I admit that outwardly I resembled sufficiently a man who could make a second officer for a steamer chartered by a French company."

"Unknown to my respectable landlady, it was my practice directly after my breakfast to hold animated receptions of Malays, Arabs and half-castes. They did not clamour aloud for my attention. They came with a silent and irresistible appeal — and the appeal, I affirm here, was not to my self-love or my vanity. It seems now to have had a moral character, for why should the memory of these beings, seen in their obscure sun-bathed existence, demand to express itself in the shape of a novel, except on the ground of that mysterious fellowship which unites in a community of hopes and fears all the dwellers on this earth?"

"I won't go so far as saying that the engaging of a man fated never to cross the Western Ocean was the absolute cause of the Franco-Canadian Transport Company's failure to achieve even a single passage. It might have been that of course; but the obvious, gross obstacle was clearly the want of money. Four hundred and sixty bunks for emigrants were put together in the 'tween decks by industrious carpenters while we lay in the Victoria Dock, but never an emigrant turned up in Rouen — of which, being a humane person, I confess I was glad."

"It was in 1868, when nine years old or thereabouts, that while looking at a map of Africa of the time and putting my finger on the blank space then representing the unsolved mystery of that continent, I said to myself with absolute assurance and an amazing audacity which are no longer in my character now: "When I grow up I shall go there." And of course I thought no more about it till after a quarter of a century or so an opportunity offered to go there — as if the sin of childish audacity were to be visited on my mature head. Yes. I did go there: there being the region of Stanley Falls which in '68 was the blankest of blank spaces on the earth's figured surface."

"What is it that Novalis says? "It is certain my conviction gains infinitely the moment another soul will believe in it." And what is a novel if not a conviction of our fellow-men's existence strong enough to take upon itself a form of imagined life clearer than reality and whose accumulated verisimilitude of selected episodes puts to shame the pride of documentary history? Providence which saved my MS. from the Congo rapids brought it to the knowledge of a helpful soul far out on the open sea."

"I dare say I am compelled, unconsciously compelled, now to write volume after volume, as in past years I was compelled to go to sea voyage after voyage. Leaves must follow upon each other as leagues used to follow in the days gone by, on and on to the appointed end, which, being Truth itself, is One — one for all men and for all occupations. I do not know which of the two impulses has appeared more mysterious and more wonderful to me. Still, in writing, as in going to sea, I had to wait my opportunity."

"The public record of these formative impressions is not the whim of an uneasy egotism. These, too, are things human, already distant in their appeal. It is meet that something more should be left for the novelist's children than the colours and figures of his own hard-won creation. That which in their grown-up years may appear to the world about them as the most enigmatic side of their natures and perhaps must remain for ever obscure even to themselves, will be their unconscious response to the still voice of that inexorable past from which his work of fiction and their personalities are remotely derived. Only in men's imagination does every truth find an effective and undeniable existence. Imagination, not invention, is the supreme master of art as of life. An imaginative and exact rendering of authentic memories may serve worthily that spirit of piety towards all things human which sanctions the conceptions of a writer of tales, and the emotions of the man reviewing his own experience."

"I knew, at a very early age, that my grand-uncle Nicholas B. was a Knight of the Legion of Honour and that he had also the Polish Cross for valour Virtuti Militari. The knowledge of these glorious facts inspired in me an admiring veneration; yet it is not that sentiment, strong as it was, which resumes for me the force and the significance of his personality. It is overborne by another and complex impression of awe, compassion and horror. Mr. Nicholas B. remains for me the unfortunate and miserable (but heroic) being who once upon a time had eaten a dog. It is a good forty years since I heard the tale, and the effect has not worn off yet. I believe this is the very first, say, realistic, story I heard in my life; but all the same I don't know why I should have been so frightfully impressed. Of course I know what our village dogs look like — but still. . .No! At this very day, recalling the horror and compassion of my childhood, I ask myself whether I am right in disclosing to a cold and fastidious world that awful episode in the family history. I ask myself — is it right? — especially as the B. family had always been honourably known in a wide country-side for the delicacy of their tastes in the matter of eating and drinking."

"It was during the memorable retreat from Moscow that Mr. Nicholas B., in company of two brother officers — as to whose morality and natural refinement I know nothing — bagged a dog on the outskirts of a village and subsequently devoured him. As far as I can remember the weapon used was a cavalry sabre, and the issue of the sporting episode was rather more of a matter of life and death than if it had been an encounter with a tiger... The dog barked. And if he had done no more than bark three officers of the Great Napoleon's army would have perished honourably on the points of Cossack's lances, or perchance escaping the chase would have died decently of starvation. But before they had time to think of running away, that fatal and revolting dog, being carried away by the excess of his zeal, dashed out through a gap in the fence. He dashed out and died. His head, I understand, was severed at one blow from his body. I understand also that later on, within the gloomy solitudes of the snow-laden woods, when, in a sheltering hollow, a fire had been lit by the party, the condition of the quarry was discovered to be distinctly unsatisfactory. It was not thin — on the contrary, it seemed unhealthily obese; its skin showed bare patches of an unpleasant character. However, they had not killed that dog for the sake of the pelt. He was large. . .He was eaten. . .The rest is silence. . . A silence in which a small boy shudders and says firmly: "I could not have eaten that dog." And his grandmother remarks with a smile: "Perhaps you don't know what it is to be hungry.""

"I have the conviction that there are men of unstained rectitude who are ready to murmur scornfully the word desertion. Thus the taste of innocent adventure may be made bitter to the palate. The part of the inexplicable should be allowed for in appraising the conduct of men in a world where no explanation is final. No charge of faithlessness ought to be lightly uttered. The appearances of this perishable life are deceptive like everything that falls under the judgment of our imperfect senses. The inner voice may remain true enough in its secret counsel. The fidelity to a special tradition may last through the events of an unrelated existence, following faithfully too the traced way of an inexplicable impulse. It would take too long to explain the intimate alliance of contradictions in human nature which makes love itself wear at times the desperate shape of betrayal. And perhaps there is no possible explanation."

"Mr. Nicholas B. confided to his sister-in-law (my grandmother) in his misanthropically laconic manner that this supper in the woods had been nearly "the death of him." This is not surprising. What surprises me is that the story was ever heard of; for grand-uncle Nicholas differed in this from the generality of military men of Napoleon's time (and perhaps of all time), that he did not like to talk of his campaigns, which began at Friedland and ended somewhere in the neighbourhood of Bar-le-Duc. His admiration of the great Emperor was unreserved in everything but expression. Like the religion of earnest men, it was too profound a sentiment to be displayed before a world of little faith."

"He was a man of strange contradictions. Living for many years in his brother's house, the home of many children, a house full of life, of animation, noisy with a constant coming and going of many guests, he kept his habits of solitude and silence. Considered as obstinately secretive in all his purposes, he was in reality the victim of a most painful irresolution in all matters of civil life. Under his taciturn, phlegmatic behaviour was hidden a faculty of short-lived passionate anger. I suspect he had no talent for narrative; but it seemed to afford him sombre satisfaction to declare that he was the last man to ride over the bridge of the river Elster after the battle of Leipsic."

"In the career of the most unliterary of writers, in the sense that literary ambition had never entered the world of his imagination, the coming into existence of the first book is quite an inexplicable event. In my own case I cannot trace it back to any mental or psychological cause which one could point out and hold to. The greatest of my gifts being a consummate capacity for doing nothing, I cannot even point to boredom as a rational stimulus for taking up a pen."

"To survey with wonder the changes of one's own self is a fascinating pursuit for idle hours. The field is so wide, the surprises so varied, the subject so full of unprofitable but curious hints as to the work of unseen forces, that one does not weary easily of it. I am not speaking here of megalomaniacs who rest uneasy under the crown of their unbounded conceit — who really never rest in this world, and when out of it go on fretting and fuming on the straitened circumstances of their last habitation, where all men must lie in obscure equality. Neither am I thinking of those ambitious minds who, always looking forward to some aim of aggrandisement, can spare no time for a detached, impersonal glance upon themselves."

"The ethical view of the universe involves us at last in so many cruel and absurd contradictions, where the last vestiges of faith, hope, charity, and even of reason itself, seem ready to perish, that I have come to suspect that the aim of creation cannot be ethical at all. I would fondly believe that its object is purely spectacular: a spectacle for awe, love, adoration, or hate, if you like, but in this view — and in this view alone — never for despair! Those visions, delicious or poignant, are a moral end in themselves. The rest is our affair — the laughter, the tears, the tenderness, the indignation, the high tranquillity of a steeled heart, the detached curiosity of a subtle mind — that's our affair! And the unwearied self-forgetful attention to every phase of the living universe reflected in our consciousness may be our appointed task on this earth. A task in which fate has perhaps engaged nothing of us except our conscience, gifted with a voice in order to bear true testimony to the visible wonder, the haunting terror, the infinite passion and the illimitable serenity; to the supreme law and the abiding mystery of the sublime spectacle."

"A writer is no older than his first published book, and, notwithstanding the vain appearances of decay which attend us in this transitory life, I stand here with the wreath of only fifteen short summers on my brow."

"The good author is he who contemplates without marked joy or excessive sorrow the adventures of his soul amongst criticisms."

"I have faced the astonished indignations, the mockeries and the reproaches of a sort hard to bear for a boy of fifteen; that I have been charged with the want of patriotism, the want of sense, and the want of heart too; that I went through agonies of self-conflict and shed secret tears not a few, and had the beauties of the Furca Pass spoiled for me, and have been called an "incorrigible Don Quixote," in allusion to the book-born madness of the knight."

"I do not know whether I have been a good seaman, but I know I have been a very faithful one."

"I have been called romantic. Well, that can't be helped. But stay. I seem to remember that I have been called a realist also. And as that charge too can be made out, let us try to live up to it, at whatever cost, for a change."

"I will make bold to say that neither at sea nor ashore have I ever lost the sense of responsibility. There is more than one sort of intoxication. Even before the most seductive reveries I have remained mindful of that sobriety of interior life, that asceticism of sentiment, in which alone the naked form of truth, such as one conceives it, such as one feels it, can be rendered without shame. It is but a maudlin and indecent verity that comes out through the strength of wine. I have tried to be a sober worker all my life — all my two lives. I did so from taste, no doubt, having an instinctive horror of losing my sense of full self-possession, but also from artistic conviction."

"Can the transports of first love be calmed, checked, turned to a cold suspicion of the future by a grave quotation from a work on Political Economy? I ask — is it conceivable? Is it possible? Would it be right? With my feet on the very shores of the sea and about to embrace my blue-eyed dream, what could a good- natured warning as to spoiling one's life mean to my youthful passion?"

"Wedged as we are between two eternities of idleness, there is no excuse for being idle now."

"I was not really anything [at university in the late 1930s] but a renegade Catholic liberal humanist with tendencies to anarchism. Auden and Spender and Day Lewis, who had not proved notably quick to fight for Spain, struck me as naive; so, for different reasons, did T.S. Eliot. There was no solution to the world’s problems in communism, and no personal salvation in Anglicanism. The solutions probably lay with renegade Catholic liberal humanism. I do not think, nearly fifty years after, I have much changed my position. (Part 3, pg. 183)"

"Poor as I was [at one stage of university], however, I still insisted on the Friday night booze-up, with Gaunt and Mason and two men from the English second year called Ian McColl and Harry Green. Green and McColl fascinated me. They were coarse, rejecting totally the grace of civilisation, but the English language and its literature were their life. McColl was so soaked in Anglo-Saxon that it was a natural instinct for him to avoid Latinisms and Hellenisms even in colloquial speech. He was quite prepared, like the poet Barnes, to call an omnibus a folk wain or a telephone a fartalker. He knew German but hated the Nazis, who, after all, were, only disinfecting their language of exoticisms in McColl’s own manner. He and Green knew there was a war coming, and they did regular infantry drill with the university Officer Training Corps. They were both killed in France in 1940, following the tradition of First World War subalterns, and this they were perhaps prepared to foresee. They never spoke of a future; they were fixed in a present of which the literary past was a part. McColl composed orally an endless saga about two lecherous boozers called Filthfroth and Brothelbreath with lines like"

"Dylan Thomas was the one big name [in the literary circles Burgess frequented in wartime London], but George Orwell, known chiefly as a competent journalist who had had his larynx weakened by a Spanish bullet, sometimes appeared in the Wheatsheaf or Fitzroy Tavern to down a silent half. He stood on the edge of a company of film workers one evening to listen distractedly to Gilbert Wood, a petulant painter mentioned scornfully, though not by name, in Maclaren-Ross’s Memoirs. Wood ... was terrified even by the mention of rats and, inevitably in his presence, rats would sooner or later gnaw into the conversation. ... I believe Orwell picked up the idea of Winston Smith’s phobia from Gilbert Wood. When, much later, I told Wood that I had eaten stewed rat, he vomited."

"The view of Liverpudlians that they are a race apart is well-founded. There is the unanalysable genetic mixture of a great port and also Welsh from the south and Irish a jump across from Dublin. The speech is distinctive. ‘All got your furs, love?’ cried the tram conductress, who kept warm with a bit of moth-eaten fare. The energy is immense and explains the gratuitous violence. ... Generosity could lead to violence. If I asked a direction I would soon have a crowd around me giving contradictory instructions. I would leave a fight behind and have to ask again. ... Of all the British cities that deserve the curative attention of the British government Liverpool comes first. The Bootle Beatles were taken too seriously, but, in their modest way, they exemplified the combative energy of the great decayed port. Guilt pricked me when I began to feel a larger loyalty to it than to Manchester."

"They [Burgess’s students in foreign languages] just could not understand why one word had to be masculine and another feminine and, in German, yet another neuter. One student puzzled over das Pferd and asked ... if all the horses were castrated in Germany. My approach was as gross as the one I used with my illiterates when teaching the alphabet. I said that some cultures were so obsessed with sex that sex entered into things that had no sex. Thus, a pencil was like a prick and hence was properly el lapiz or le crayon. Water was rightly feminine: you could dip your wick in it. Discussing this technique – prick-words and cunt-words – in the Army Education Office, I disgusted a high Anglican clerk who spoke like a bishop. He asked for a transfer and told the major why. This, naturally, did me no good."

"We landed at London docks [finally returning from service with Army education in Gibraltar], and the first thing we saw ashore was a poster of an anguished widow over the slogan ‘Keep Death Off the Roads’. Someone had scratched this out and substituted ‘She Voted Labour’."

"There was a writer already working on a novel which should present the ultimate austerity, whose properties he took from the years of the British peace. This was Orwell, whom I saw briefly at the Mandrake Club, which specialized in dubious gin flavoured with cloves and a large number of chessboards. It was run by a man called Boris. I had brought back with me from Gilbraltar a number of tins of Victory cigarettes, which were a very briefly maintained army ration and quite unsmokable. But I paid taxi fares with them. orwell’s non-committal eye took in the tin I had on my table at the Mandrake, which became the Chestnut Tree Café, but [he] did not accept a cigarette, preferring to roll his own. But his description of Victory cigarettes in Nineteen Eighty-Four is accurate, and his Victory gin is Boris’s. ... The physical reality of his prophecy is, for me, set firmly in the forties, though it makes me shudder to remember that I pondered over chess moves in the Chestnut Tree Café. Orwell’s power to ensour things was considerable. ... The term Orwellian is wrongly applied to the future. It was the miserable forties that were Orwellian."

"In 1943 there had been the Battle of Bamber Bridge, well remembered, though it never got into the official chronicles of the war. Black soldiers had barricaded the camp against the whites and trained machine guns on to them. The Brigg was totally black in sentiment. When the US military authorities had demanded that the pubs impose a colour bar, the landlords had responded with ‘Black Troops Only’."

"The landlord of this pub [the Red Lion in Adderbury, Oxfordshire], Ted Arden, was from Stratford-on-Avon. He was of the family of Shakespeare’s mother, though he made no capital out of this, and he had inherited a fiddle-browed Shakespearian head which was clearly an Arden endowment. [It] was he, in his aitchless ungrammatical Warwickshire, who told me of the Stratford tradition that Shakespeare had had an affair with a black woman and this resulted in his nose dropping off."

"As we entered a zone of heat more furious than anything I had known in Gibraltar, I felt I was approaching a world I could live in. I sweated and was happy to sweat. Where there ain’t no ten commandments and a man can raise a thirst. That summed it up. My repressive Catholic heritage was a very small and eccentric item in the inventory of the world’s religions. I would sweat and drink gin pahits and taste the varied sexual resources of the East."

"I wandered Singapore and was enchanted. I picked up a Chinese prostitute on Bugis Street. We went to a filthy hôtel de passe full of the noise of hawking and spitting, termed by the cynical the call of the East. I entered her and entered the territory."

"Colonial functionaries had to learn the major language of their territory at a formidable level. A kitchen jargon, good enough for wives, with bad grammar and a master-race pronunciation, was usually preferred by the natives, who did not believe it was possible for a foreigner with a white skin to learn their tongue. Colonial civil servants had to disconcert these natives with a linguistic mastery, including a control of many registers, equal to, or greater than, their own."

"The demands of Islamic wives for frequent sexual congress did not indicate true sensual appetite: they were a test of the fidelity of their husbands. A Malay female body, musky, shapely, golden-brown, was always a delight....They were seductive as few women are.... My experience with Chinese girls was mostly, alas, commercial. Prostitutes, or dance-hall girls, knew all the postures, were thin, lithe, sinuous, but disappointingly uninvolved in the act...."

"The few Thailand women I met in northern Malaya called the sexual act kedunkading, with a resonant stress on the last syllable, enjoyed congress as a laughing game and experienced quick and happy orgasms with little help from the male. It was Indian women who, as one would expect from the serious Sanskrit amatory manuals, disclosed most knowledge of the techniques of inducing transport, for themselves and for their partners..."

"Not far from Kuala Kangsar, on the road to the tin-town of Ipoh, was the village called Sungai Siput (meaning Snail River), reputed to be the headquarters of the Chinese communist terrorists. These terrorists were certainly more active in the state of Perak than in, say, the maritime province of Kelantan, because of the great number of rubber estates there abutting on the jungle. They would come out of the jungle, steal supplies, terrorise the Chinese and Indian workers, and garotte or shoot the white planters. All this in the name of human freedom. Their arms were mostly left over from the time when they were fighting the Japanese. Perak was full of troops of the Malay Regiment, which had its quota of British conscripts, and questing planes and helicopters hummed over the jungle. The atmosphere was warlike. Car trips to Ipoh could be dangerous. The mems in their flowery dresses went to do their shopping in armoured vehicles. Planters laid their heavy service revolvers in the beer-slop of the Idris Club. This was named for a former sultan of Perak, Idris being the Koranic equivalent of Enoch. The sultan who reigned during the time of the Emergency was Yusof."

"Yusof was also the name of the cook boy who came to work for us. He was homosexual but far from effeminate. He had been in and out of the hands of the police for various small thefts, and police medical examinations disclosed a zakar or hak or pesawat or jantan or kalam or 'urat or butoh or ayok-ayutan and a pair of buah pelir or buah peler or kelepir or bodek or telor (there is no end to the number of Malay terms for the genitals) bigger than any in Kuala Kangsar. He could shift a piano single-handed. He dyed his hair with henna and muscularly minced. The advances he made to me were politely repelled, but he demanded a kind of earnest of an intimate relationship between us - a studio wedding photograph of the two of us, me in Palm Beach suit and songkok or Malay velvet cap, him in bridal dress adorned with frangipani. When I would not yield to this he exacted various acts of revenge - thefts of money and of underpants, finally the lacing of my gin with an aphrodisiac bought in the market. The aphrodisiac proved to be an emetic. He had picked up cooking in the kitchen of the Malay Regiment officers' mess, and he served us nauseating dishes with cold sculpted potatoes, parodies of some dream of the haute cuisine anglaise. Lynne taught him simpler recipes - stew of kambing (goat or mutton : one could never be sure) and even lobscouse, which was eventually adopted in the town as a dish believed to be native Malay. He would ruin these with fistfuls of carraway seeds. Eventually we lived on his curries, which, being Malay, were mild but not bad. If he stole from me, he made up for this by stealing from the store cupboards of the preparatory school mess - tinned peaches and polished rice. When he set the table he would place with the salt cellar and the Worcester sauce a tin of furniture polish. He could not read."

"When he was given money for marketing he would spend some of it on a small animal - an ailing mouse-deer or pelandok, a twittering yellow bird in a bamboo cage. He adored Lalage but Lalage mistrusted his big brown feet. Lalage became the nucleus of a whole domestic zoo. Yusof brought in, with the help of a friend, a huge turtle that slept in the bath at night but, during the day, clanked around the house, knocking its shell against the wall. We were also given a musang or polecat which stank to heaven and ate two katis of bananas every day. The polecat was named Farouche and the turtle Bucephalus. Two rhesus monkeys, male and female, were also imported, but these swung on the ceiling fans and were destructive. All over the walls cheeped chichaks or house lizards, hunting or copulating loudly. Black scorpions clung to the bedroom walls and greeted one on waking with twitching tails an inch or so over one's head."

"Our amah or cleaning and laundering girl was named Mas, which means gold. She was very small, less than five feet, and of mixed origin - Sumatran, Siamese, a touch of China. She spoke a little English - "Yusof a bit cracked, tuan," she would say, rightly - but was fluent in all the tongues of the peninsula. Her father called himself Mr. Raja and was reputed to have committed incest with her - sumbang, a terrible crime - but was immune from any criminal charge because the Sultan owed him money. He looked wholly Tamil. Mas had been married at the age of twelve. This was unusually young, but the occupying Japanese had had the delicacy not to send married women to their brothels. Mas's one son, born when she was thirteen, was a burly policeman who looked ten years older than his mother."

"I gained the impression from Mas, and from other Malays, real or pseudo, that the Japanese occupation had been easy on the sons of the soil but very tough on the Chinese. This, naturally, pleased the sons of the soil, who had been allowed to turn to Mecca in the west at sunrise on condition that they turned to the east first and who, apart from the brothelisation of the unmarried girls, had been treated with reasonable courtesy. Yusof Tajuddin, one of my colleagues at the Malay College, had learned Japanese so well that he won an elocution contest open to native Nipponese as well as to the occupied. The learning of Japanese did nobody anything but good, since the Japanese were going to take over the East, if not the world, commercially when their more aggressive imperialism failed. Yusof Tajuddin had rather liked the Japanese, a clean and logical people. The Japanese had been impressed with the colonial system they took over. To the Malays the return of the British had not meant liberation from an oppressive regime but the mere replacement of a set of yellow foreigners by white ones. It was the Chinese, aggressive in business, murderous in the jungle, who were the real enemy."

"Yusof Tajuddin may have liked the Japanese, and Mas have tolerated them, but both shuddered at memories of what King's Pavilion had been during the occupation. "This not good place, mem," Mas used to say. Yusof Tajuddin, in his impeccable RP English, was more explicit. King's Pavilion had been used as a centre of torture and interrogation. Dried blood, irremovable with any amount of Vim, stained the floor of the main bathroom, through whose open channels much blood had flowed. Yusof Tajuddin explained the peculiar chill of the bathroom, otherwise inexplicable in a house with few fans on which the sun beat, in psychic terms : the frozen hands of death clutched it still and would clutch it for ever. A Scottish engineer of intense scepticism entered the bathroom on our invitation and came out shuddering. In the raintrees and banyans at sunset, Yusof the cook alleged, the voices of the tortured and executed could be heard complaining. Lynne and I could not hear these voices, but we knew Yusof to be superstitious in the manner of his race. He found hantu-hantu (or hantu 2) everywhere. I do not know the etymology of the word, which means ghost, but have often wondered whether there is some ancient connection, through Sanskrit, with haunt. For Yusof everything was haunted. His middle finger, or jari hantu, was haunted and must be careful about what it touched. He had seen a hantu bangkit, a sheeted ghost risen from the grave that, prevented from walking by its winding sheet, had rolled towards Yusof with evil intent. He had seen the hantu belian or tiger ghost. There was a kitchen ghost, disguised as a mat, that sometimes reared itself at him and made him smash the crockery. There were gnomes in the soil, hantu tanah, and the owl, or burong hantu, was a literal ghost-bird that stared at him and made him scream in his sleep. He knew all the hantu-hantu or hantu 2. The voices in the banyans were nothing compared with the visible ghosts with trailing entrails or the spectral huntsman (hantu pemburu), but they were there. We had better believe it."

"There were good ghostly reasons for not wishing to stay in King's Pavilion, but the real causes for our dissatisfaction with the place were more mundane. It was beautiful enough, an ample structure of the Victorian age, and the view from its verandahs was sumptuous. It looked down on great trees and gardens tended by thin Tamils drunk on todi or palm wine ; beyond was the confluence of rivers ; beyond again the jungle and the mountains. But the gorgeousness of the vista was inadequate payment for the responsibility imposed on us. We inhabited what was in effect a huge flat cut off, but not cut off enough, from the classrooms and dormitories of the preparatory school. At the beginning of the school year weeping Malay boys would arrive with their mothers and fathers, who would stay a night with them and try to stay more, and prepare to be turned into sophisticated collegians. They knew no English, and this had to be taught to them in a two-year course by a Mr. Mahalingam and a Mrs. Vivekananda. They were taught weird vowels and doubtful accentuations. Mrs. Vivekananda made them sing "Old Blick Jooooh" and Mr. Mahalingam did not correct them when they turned bullock cart into bulokar. When lessons were over they made much noise and pissed from their balcony into the inner court, visible while Lynne and I ate lunch. If I railed at them they ran away. If I entered their screaming dormitory they would drag out their prayer mats and howl towards Mecca, knowing that their religious devotions rendered them untouchable by the infidel. They called me Puteh, or white, and also Mat Salleh, or Holy Joe. The other teachers of the Malay College could go to quiet houses on Bukit Chandan, meaning Sandalwood Hill, when their work was over. Lynne and I had to cope with noise and responsibility."

"It was literally a responsibility for life and death. The garden was full of snakes, of which Malaya has a large variety, and a king cobra with a growing family was much around King's Pavilion during my tenure. Scorpions would get into the boys' shoes or beds and sting them bitterly. Hygiene was a problem, for the water supply was erratic and sometimes totally failed. Because of some fault in the meter, the Water Department recorded an excessive use of water in a dry time when, in fact, there was no water at all. My complaints and counter-complaints were rebuffed. I groaned in my stomach. I had the reputation of being bloody-minded : it was the army all over again. Moreover, a linguistic burden was being imposed upon me which I could not, in my first few months, easily sustain. I had to harangue these young boys in good idiomatic Malay and, though I was learning the language fast, I was not able to learn it fast enough."

"There was always an amateurishness in colonial administration, and even in technical specialisation, which was deemed desirable by the British, who have never trusted professionalism. Sir Frank Swettenham, one of the founder Malayan administrators, laid down succinctly the qualities desirable in a new recruit to the service - good at games, not so good at studies, unmarried and amoral enough to employ a sleeping dictionary, not too matey otherwise with the natives, clubbable. He might have added something about artistic taste, or lack of it, but that, like a fear of intellectualism, is probably implied in the first two items. If I had hoped to find intellectual companionship among my white colleagues it was because I expected a transferral of the grammar school atmosphere to a college celebrating fifty years of academic glory. But there was little glory, except on the rugger and hockey fields. Jimmy Howell announced with satisfaction at a staff meeting the installation of a hundred stout locks for the library bookcases. "One for each book," I unwisely said. The extra-curricular lives of the teachers reflected the lack of academic ambition in the school itself. They had their long-playing record-players and their shelves of book club novels, golf clubs in the hallway and stengahs on the tray. They took trips to Ipoh to shop at Whiteways and take a bit of decent makan in the Ipoh Club (ikan tinggeri belle meuniere). They had their decent little cars."

"Lynne and I had never learned to drive, an aspect of our long poverty, and I was not sure that I wanted a car. Few of my non-expatriate colleagues had them, and to whizz around the little royal town in a Ford or Austin was to emphasise the gulf between the privileged whites and the poor blacks, browns and yellows. Not that the coloured were necessarily without cars : there were rich Chinese and a Sultan with a whole polished fleet of Buicks and Daimlers. But the Malays trudged on big brown bare feet or took trishaws. I walked and soaked my shirt in the damnable humidity : this, and my growing mastery of the Malay language, placed me too close to the natives for the comfort of my colleagues. I also carried on a quiet love affair with one of the natives, a girl named Rahimah who worked as a waitress in a Chinese coffee shop. She was very small and very pretty and she was a divorcée. Muslim divorce was too easy, and there were far too many of these cast-off girls about. I was deeply sorry for Rahimah, who had a small wage, scant tips, and a small son named Mat to look after (Mat being the Malay short form of Mohamed). I gave her what money I could, and we made love in her tiny cell that smelt of curry and Himalayan Bouquet while Mat was at the junior Koran school."

"I had better say a little now about love-making in the East. With Malays there were certain restrictions on the amatory forms, laid down by Islam, so that only the posture of Venus observed was officially permitted. Islamic women were supposed to be passive houris. The demands of Islamic wives for frequent sexual congress did not indicate true sensual appetite: they were a test of the fidelity of their husbands. A Malay female body, musky, shapely, golden-brown, was always a delight. Malay women rarely ran to fat, which was reserved to the wives of the Chinese towkays and was an index of prosperity. Malay women kept their figures after childbirth through a kind of ritual roasting over an open fire, tightly wrapped in greased winding-sheets. They walked proudly in sarongs and bajus (little shaped coats), their glossy hair permanently waved, their heels high. They were seductive as few white women are. Lying with Rahimah I regretted my own whiteness : a white skin was an eccentricity and looked like a disease. Simple though Malay sex was, it had an abundant vocabulary. To copulate was jamah or berjima or juma'at or bersatu (literally to become one), or sa-tuboh, asmara, betanchok (this term was peculiar to Perak), ayut, ayok and much much more. There was even a special term for sexual congress after the forty-day birth taboo - pechah kepala barut - and there were two for the boy's initiation after circumcision - menyepoh tua, with someone older, menyepoh muda, with someone younger. The orgasm was dignified with an Arabic loanword, shahuat, or colloquially called rumah sudah ratip - literally, "the structure has gone into an ecstatic trance", ratip or ratib being properly the term for the transport produced by the constant repetition of the holy name Allah. Where the Western term for experiencing orgasm is, in whatever language, "to come", the Malay mind, using keluar, thinks of going out, leaving the body, floating on air."

"My experience with Chinese girls was mostly, alas, commercial. Prostitutes, or dance-hall girls, knew all the postures, were thin, live, lithe, sinuous, but disappointingly uninvolved in the act. Kuala Kangsar, like other Eastern towns, was full of Chinese women who went around in sexual sororities, aware, in their age-old wisdom, that only a woman can give a woman satisfaction, and that multiple congress is more ecstatic than dual. In one Malayan school I knew, the sole Chinese woman teacher seduced the white teaching wives, broke up all their marriages, and induced a male and a female suicide. Chinese men, so Chinese women seemed to believe, were not useful in bed. They deemed it sufficient to have a long-lasting erection, and there were Chinese medicines around, usually with a high lead content, which ruined the prostate but contrived a hard and unproductive rod. I knew a Chinese businessman of eighty in Kuala Kangsar who had married a wife of eighteen, a sign of prosperity unmatched by marital prowess until he filled his system with lead. He died smiling on an erection."

"The few Thailand women I met in northern Malaya called the sexual act kedunkading, with a resonant stress on the last syllable, enjoyed congress as a laughing game and experienced quick and happy orgasms with little help from the male. It was the Indian women who, as one would expect from the serious Sanskrit amatory manuals, disclosed most knowledge of the techniques of inducing transport, for themselves and for their partners, of renewing desire more times than the frame seemed capable of supporting, of relating enjoyment to strenuous athletics, and leaving the male body a worn-out rag tenuously clinging to a spiritualised sensorium open-eyed in heaven. I had sexual encounters with Tamil women blacker than Africans, including a girl who could not have been older than twelve, but none with Bengalis or Punjabis. Whatever her race, the Eastern partner's allure was always augmented by the ambience of spice from the spice-shops, the rankness of the drains, the intense heat of the day, the miracle of transitory coolness at sundown, with the coppersmith birds hammering away at tree-trunks and the fever-bird emitting its segment of a scale - sometimes three notes, sometimes four. Sex in the West is too cold, too unaromatic. It is only fair to say that Orientals, especially, for some reason, Sikhs, have found ecstasies in Bayswater unprocurable in the lands of spice."

"I wrote a novel some years ago which presents a whole lifetime of homosexuality and, in American bookshops, found its way to the shelf specialising in "gay" literature. For all that, I have never had homosexual proclivities, and I do not well understand what causes the inversion, which goes against biology. There seemed, in my time in Malaya, very few British expatriates drawn to brown male bodies. Islam does not approve of sodomy, despite its prevalence in the desert and in the lands of the Moghrab, and my cook Yusof seemed to be a rare and notorious exception to the sexual current of Kuala Kangsar. He was sometimes called benignly a limau nipis, or thin-skinned lime, which is one of the few terms the Malays have for catamite, or a member of the kaum nabi Lot, the tribe of the prophet Lot, which is a libel on the one straight man of the Cities of the Plain, but his disposition was merely mused upon as an interesting deviation. In the dormitories of the Malay College there was little amatory thumping around. I was surrounded in the Federation by a vigorous fleshly normality. Only the Sikhs, feeling themselves to be an exclusive warlike brotherhood, grunted against each other with turbans awry and beards wagging. The land pullulated with brown and yellow children tumbling into the monsoon drains. There was no danger of its going dry through unwillingness to breed."

"There was enough commercial sex around in the towns of Malaya, but there was a certain discretion of display. The secondary exploitation of it, in stage shows or blatant underwear advertisements, was mostly abhorrent to the Eastern mind, though there was a famous Chinese striptease performer named Rose Chan who drew crowds of towkays panting under their binoculars. It was the white woman who was expected to be shameless and provocative. Marilyn Monroe and Jane Russell were to be seen in Cinemascope, and there was a full-page advertisement for The Barefoot Contessa in the Straits Times presenting Ava Gardner as "the most beautiful animal in the world". Some of my students pinned this page to the wall above their beds. The crinolined or embustled mems of the old days had been untouchable, but things were changing in the new age of democracy and equality. All Kuala Kangsar was on fire when a French film called Ah! Les Belles Bacchantes was shown. In it French women exhibited pert little bosoms and men of all races united in groans of lust. The Frenchwoman, or perempuan Paranchis, stood for lasciviousness, and the town of Kota Bharu on the East Coast was known, pathetically, as the Paris of the East because of the sexual licence that was believed to prevail there. There was a Frenchwoman in Kuala Kangsar, but she was a very austere doctor of medicine in a white coat. There was only one woman who, not behaving like the traditional English mem in the East and possessing the blonde beauty of a film star, was taken to be erotic in the French manner, and that was my wife."

"Time for a Tiger was sometimes compared unfavourably with the Eastern stories of Somerset Maugham, who was considered, and still is, the true fictional expert on Malaya. The fact is that Maugham knew little of the country outside the very bourgeois lives of the planters and the administrators. He certainly knew none of the languages. Nor did Joseph Conrad. When I stated, as a matter of plain fact, that I knew more Malay than Conrad, I was accused of conceit...."

"Greene made it clear to me that he had achieved much and had reached a plateau where he could afford to take leisurely breath. He had not written the definitive Malayan novel which should match the definitive Vietnamese one entitled The Quiet American, and he did not think that I would write it either...."

"I got on with the task of turning myself into a brief professional writer. The term professional is not meant to imply a high standard of commitment and attainment: it meant then, as it still does, the pursuit of a trade or calling to the end of paying the rent and buying liquor. I leave the myth of inspiration and agonised creative inaction to the amateurs. The practice of a profession entails discipline, which for me meant the production of two thousand words of fair copy every day, weekends included. I discovered that, if I started early enough, I could complete the day’s stint before the pubs opened. Or, if I could not, there was an elated period of the night after closing time, with neighbours banging on the walls to protest at the industrious clacking. Two thousand words a day means a yearly total of 730,000. Step up the rate and, without undue effort, you can reach a million. This ought to mean ten novels of 100,000 words each. This quantitative approach is not, naturally, to be approved. And because of hangovers, marital quarrels, creative deadness induced by the weather, shopping trips, summonses to meet state officials, and sheer torpid gloom, I was not able to achieve more than five and a half novels of very moderate size in that pseudo-terminal year. Still, it was very nearly E.M.Forster’s whole long life’s output."

"After that first visit, East Berlin became for me one of the metaphysical cities. If ever I wavered in my acceptance of Western capitalism, I had only to return to that grimness unenlivened by the gaudy posters of commercialism to wish to scuttle back to nudes and Mammon..."

"The East Berliners were in their wretched element, having passed immediately from one totalitarian regime to another. The damnable hypocrisy of the half-town, pretending that the West was the true prison and the gunmen were protecting the freedom of the citizen, stood for a metaphysic based on lies, the biggest lie of all being the perversion of the term demokratisch. Under the roof of the Friedrichstrabe S-Bahn platform two boys with sub-machine-guns paced, their eyes on potential refugees from communist prosperity. It was a relief to get to the Zoo station and all the howling injunctions to consume."

"The only guilt I have felt at leaving England is the guilt of not missing England more."

"I do not boast about the quality of my work, but I may be permitted to pride myself on the gift of steady application. I will get things done somehow, as D.H.Lawrence did. I fade out of the life of my loved ones to work, even while in their presence, and to them I do not seem to have been working at all. I will even compose music in front of a television film that is blasting music of its own. I do not like my work to get in the way of other people’s lives. I do not call for silence or cups of tea. In the Bedmobile, jolting through Italy, I would type at the rear table, having made myself a pint of strong tea on the stove fed by nether gas tubes. The gift of concentration stays with me, and it is perhaps my only gift."

"...one can't throw away the Eucharist so easily."

"The aura of the theocratic death penalty for adultery still clings to America, even outside New England, and multiple divorce, which looks to the European like serial polygamy, is the moral solution to the problem of the itch. Love comes into it too, of course, but in Europe we tend to see marital love as an eternity which encompasses hate and also indifference: when we promise to love we really mean that we promise to honour a contract. Americans, seeming to take marriage with not enough seriousness, are really taking love and sex with too much."

"I cannot keep myself healthy - too many bad habits ingrained, cardiac bronchitis like the orchestra of death tuning up under water - but I submit to the promptings of an energy that might be diagnosed as health perverted, for true health enjoys itself and does not wish to act. The energy, which I call creative, is given to the thousand words a day I vowed to produce after the failure of the neurologists’ prognosis freed me from writing more."

"Am I happy? Probably not. Having passed the prescribed biblical age limit, I have to think of death, and I do not like the thought. There is a vestigial fear of hell, and even of purgatory, and no amount of rereading rationalist authors can expunge it. If there is only darkness after death, then that darkness is the ultimate reality and that love of life that I intermittently possess is no preparation for it. In face of the approaching blackness, which Winston Churchill facetiously termed black velvet, concerning oneself with a world that is soon to fade out like a television image in a power cut seems mere frivolity. But rage against the dying of the light is only human, especially when there are still things to be done, and my rage sometimes sounds to myself like madness. It is not only a question of works never to be written; it is a matter of things unlearned. I have started to learn Japanese, but it is too late; I have started to read Hebrew, but my eyes will not take in the jots and tittles. How can one fade out in peace, carrying vast ignorance into a state of total ignorance?"

"The rage I wake to and take to bed is a turbulence not always related to an object. It seems like a pure emotion looking for an object. It cathartises itself into salty howling, then exhaustion, then it starts again."

"Kingsley Amis and John Braine had been very much men of the left, but now they were swinging towards a reactionary stance that denied artistic progressivism as well as political."

"I had never had strong political beliefs. If I was a kind of Jacobite Tory, like John Dryden and Samuel Johnson, this was because socialism was positivist and denied original sin."

"I was in the right country for cheating. The Italians, after two thousand years of bad government (except for the odd interludes recorded by Gibbon), had no respect for la legge."

"The young Jane Eyre, sternly asked what she, foul sinner, must do to avoid hell, answers that she must keep herself healthy to put it off as long as possible."

"Words were things to him, objects, jewels. They are what he gets emotional and meaningful about."

"He never got the hang of young people and would bridle and bristle at long hair and pop music like a beef-faced retired colonel in Angmering-on-Sea."

"Being Burgess was...a bogus business."

"...a parody of a great writer, rather than a great writer."

"...what is this persistent fantasy that he is a great leg-over man?....he has had carnal knowledge of Chinese, Malay, Buginese, Tamil, Singhalese, Bengali, Japanese and Algonquin women - all prostitutes....Or perhaps it was the same prostitute - there's a lot of racial overlap in the Federated Malay States....his sexual antics are fiction."

"...great writer who never wrote a great book - but perfected a great writer act."

"He was a whole world to me once when I was young and what I published was academic in inspiration ... It worries me that henceforward he is going to have a spurious reputation ... pumped up by second-rate scholar-squirrels from unheard-of institutions."

"His conversation was a monologue, delivered in his exhibitionistic Victorian actor-manager voice."

"I think Burgess hated being a human being, and he was only to be happy inside his head."

"Burgess was not a generous man, financially, spiritually or morally..."

"[on Burgess's first wife Lynne] Who, in actuality, would want to align themselves with her ruinous boozing? Once you'd seen her project a stream of vomit, like the trumpet of the Archangel Gabriel, six feet across a room, you'd seen everything. It's so sad, the decline from a sheltered and provincial childhood to a non-life as an afternoon-club drunk and good-time girl. She returned to her husband because there really was nobody else....she couldn't cope with adulthood - with its disappointments, curtailments, longings and dissolvings. Hence, the drinking trough, the recourse of those who fear a clear consciousness, who are disinclined to see things in their true colours."

"...Burgess is like a definition of hell."

"He wrote to keep back his thoughts, and not (particularly) to articulate them."

"....Though he wanted us to believe his sexual energies were unstoppable, actually he was impotent."

"...gaunt, wan features ... waxy and pallid, long deprived of the sun. And how are we going to describe his hair? The yellowish-white powdery strands were coiled on his scalp like Bram Stoker's Dracula ... What does it say about a man that he could go around like that ... king of the comb-over (did the clumps and fronds emanate from his ear-hole?) ... however the nicotine-stained fuzzy bush at the summit of frame served to distract from the ugliness of the rest of his face ... unnaturally long lower teeth, the colour of maize, and no upper set to speak of, the top of his mouth or lip having become elongated to conceal his gums, like a baboon."

"If he'd had a daughter, would he have pounced on her? An impossible speculation – who can say?"

"...he was berserk."

"His success came from impressing people who didn't quite know better; he was left alone by those who did. He fell into that gap, and made a fortune for himself."

"He knew you weren't his equal, and I find this an insult."

"Who does he think he is?"

"I continue to feel close to him....His dedication and intelligence can't be denied..."

"I wallowed in Burgess's fecundity and catholicity....I adored his spectacle and noise, his flamboyance, the surface pleasures of his prose....he was irresistible."

"...he is a man whose talents, acquirements and virtues are so extraordinary, that the more his character is considered, the more he will be regarded by the present age, and by posterity, with admiration and reverence. He was a Doctor Johnson of our fin de siècle..."

"...a prince of the powers of the air; a mountain range full of ravines and waterfalls, torrents, crags and snowfields, casting a shadow for leagues over the plains...[even if his] house of fiction, for all its flights of stairs, antechambers, labyrinthine libraries, annexes, sliding panels, trapdoors, secret rooms, chambers of horrors and ornate carvings, is a bit gimcrack."

"[Burgess] engaged in a good deal of public and private fantasising...laying down an alarming number of false trails."

"...harmless tendency to misremember the events of his own past for comic or dramatic effect."

"This was the order of a typical Burgess day in Etchingham in the 1960s. He would get up between seven and eight in the morning – 'grudgingly', he said – and bring himself to full wakefulness by blasting out William Walton’s Portsmouth Point Overture or the Crown Imperial March on the record-player downstairs. Then he would kick his dog, a border collie named Hajji....Breakfast would be followed by...jokes and conversation with Lynne. She would open the morning’s post while he went through the newspapers (the Times and the Daily Mirror). Around ten o’clock he would go upstairs to his study, a large room with a south-facing window, looking out on to a long garden where caged guinea-pigs chewed the grass to save the trouble of having to mow it. He would settle down at the typewriter with a pint-mug of strong tea – ‘stepmother’s tea’ is what F.X. Enderby calls it – made with 'no fewer than five Twinings Irish Breakfast tea-bags'. He would remain at his desk for at least eight hours every day, weekends included, smoking excessively (his regular intake was eighty cigarettes per day) and rising occasionally – because he suffered from haemorrhoids, which he called the Writer’s Evil – to pace around the study....When his concentration failed, he would take three Dexedrine tablets, washing them down with a pint of iced gin-and-tonic before returning to the typewriter. Piles of books for review...covered the floor of his study and overflowed...onto the landing and down the stairs. (He reviewed more than 350 novels in just over two years for the Yorkshire Post, and there were always other freelance writing jobs on the go....) Apart from the work, of which there was obviously a great deal, there was also the drinking to get done. Burgess and Lynne would get through a couple of bottles of wine over dinner, and a dozen bottles of Gordon's gin were delivered to the house every week...."

"It was an introductory gimmick. I wanted to give customers a name that was easy to remember."

"He could sell you City Hall."

"Not only would he sell you City Hall. You would think you got it all tied up in a ribbon. Werner sold something to you graciously."

"What happened had no form. It was timeless, unbounded, ineffable, beyond language."[6] He told Bartley that he realized: "I had to 'clean up' my life. I had to acknowledge and correct the lies in my life. I saw that the lies that I told about others — my wanting my family, or Ellen (his second wife), or anyone else, to be different from the way that they are -- came from lies that I told about myself -- my wanting to be different from the way that I was."

"...the peak experience that I had was not related to a person or to my work, not to the ocean or to the sunset or to art, not to any of that. It was a profound sense of Self. I truly experienced the Self--not my Self: the word 'my' belongs to the world of concept about Self, not experience of Self. I was carried out of my ordinary state, not merely to another state, but to the context for all states, the context of all contexts."

"A transformed individual is one who can tell the truth; and a transformed environment is one where the truth can be told."

"In refining my understanding of the difference between success and satisfaction, and pondering the relationship between the two, it became clearer that Self--which is nonpersonal, nonpositional, nonnarrative--is the source of satisfaction."

"The moment when you really experience that you have created yourself being whatever way you are, at that same moment you will never have to be that way again."

"After my experience with Scientology, I saw what it means to see the mind as a machine. I can now operate my mind accordingly, with exactitude. I can do the familiar mind over matter experiments-- the control of pain and bleeding, telepathy, those things."

"When he started to have affairs, I saw that as a token of my utter inadequacy. I was terribly afraid that he would leave me."[9] Werner Erhard told Bartley he did not wish to undergo the trauma of problems in his second marriage as had happened in his first."

"If I were to destroy another marriage, I wouldn't be Werner Erhard anymore. I would be the liar Jack Rosenberg. Jack Rosenberg could botch a marriage. Werner Erhard had to do it right."

"I want to create a context in which government, education, families are nurturing. I want to enable, to empower the institutions of man."

"I am a sort of revolutionary. I have a strange ambition, though. I don’t want any statues. I don’t want any ordinary monuments. What I want is for the world to work. That’s the monument I want."

"Ordinary revolution is concerned with social change. It involves resistance. One revolts against something. Whereas a true revolution transcends what one was previously either resisting or submitting to. In this sense I am a revolutionary."

"Painstaking an act of devotion as it is, Prof. W.W. Bartley III's biography of Werner Erhard fails to achieve its aim. No one reading it is likely to agree with Bartley that the founder of est is a philosopher and spiritual leader of Gandhian magnitude except the already convinced."

"This reviewer is enthusiastic about this book. ... There is a personal quality about the narrative, which, though, sometimes becomes overly detailed."

"[Bartley] should have known better than to get sucked into writing this promo on Erhard, founder of one of the pseudo-therapies of the '70s. And we should know better than to pass on word of its existence to you. But then, est is in the air these days, and while it is, the public might as well hear one of its evangelists tell about its apostle. And then maybe one of these days it will all go away. Puff puff."

"As a student and disciple of est, Bartley has made the mistake of being too close to his subject to be objective or critical."

"Bartley casts a Freud's-eye-view on his subject's youthful failings, but after the famous 'transformation' his tone becomes almost reverential."

"There are also books sympathetic to Erhard, est and Landmark--some of them by writers already in the fold. One such tome, Werner Erhard, was written by W.W. Bartley, III, a professor of philosophy at California State University and an old friend of Erhard's. In it, Erhard is portrayed not as a hypocrite, but as a troubled man who was able to transform himself and then set out to teach others how to do the same."

"[Bartley's] philosophical justification of est as a mishmash of totalitarianism, hucksterism and existentialism makes this book more a public relations product than an objective study."

"Bartley, [Erhard's] friend and admitted booster, tells the often-sordid story in detail."

"Werner Hans Erhard. Nobody back in Philadelphia, he thought to himself, would ever imagine that Jack Rosenberg would change his name to Werner Hans Erhard. He had been worried ever since making his plans to leave Philadelphia that whatever name he picked, an uncle of his in the city's police department would be able to track him down. But this name was good."

"Erhard was quickly taken by Scientology - the organization, the wealth of materials that screamed out Hubbard's name at every turn, the tantalizing technology and courses that spread Hubbard gospel to his flocks that gathered under the Scientology banner."

"When a routine letter was sent in August 1969 letting him know that he had passed "Grade II" in his Scientology studies, Erhard immediately responded with his own letter claiming that he had reached Grade IV."

"Erhard always denied vehemently that est was growing into some kind of guru-centered personality cult. He insisted only that est graduates performed all the invaluable hours of free service not as a gesture of blind devotion to him but rather to carry out the principles of service to others that he maintained was a crucial part of the est culture. Undoubtedly that was true for many assistants who found themselves so caught up in the blinding light of est's appearance as a path toward human enlightenment. But Erhard and his staff also made sure that volunteers, just like the staff itself, faced constant reminders that service to est and to Erhard were synonymous."

"a compelling account of the 1980s guru who rose from selling used cars to peddling personal transformation."

"Pressman tells his fascinating story well."

"Pressman pulls the details together effectively."

"Outrageous Betrayal is a disturbing but fascinating object lesson in the power of charisma divorced from conscience."

"the most damning critique of Erhard."

"Pressman details Erhard's past, including allegations of manipulation and tales of egomania."

"Art Schreiber denounced the book as defamatory, but Landmark has yet to prove any inaccuracies."

"[Pressman] makes no pretense to objectivity here: His Werner Erhard is a charismatic but abusive con man with a genius for repackaging and marketing others' ideas."

"Pressman here cuts into him with surgical precision."

"My mother was working twelve hours a day in the Magdalena kitchens, she told me. After work she barely had time to see Bhagwan appear in Rajneesh Mandir before crawling exhausted into bed."

"My mother worked in Magdalena, cleaning pots and pans. This mountainous task was the only job in the kitchens which wasn't arbitrarily decided. The scrubbing of the hundreds of huge pans used to feed Rajneeshpuram was so arduous that no one was given the task for more than a week. On Sheela's orders, my mother did it for thirty days."

"At the same time as Bhagwan's arrest, Sheela, Puja, and Shanti Bhadra, three of the biggest of the Big Mammas, were arrested in a Black Forest hotel by West German police and extradited to the USA to face charges of attempted murder, conspiracy to commit murder, and first-degree assault. Sheela, it transpired, had formed a hit squad to carry out attacks, including the murder of District Attorney Charles Turney, Laxmi, Vivek, and an Oregonian reporter."

"The court heard that Sheela had instigated The Dalles salmonella poisonings. A team of sannyasins had been sent out with orders to smear salmonella from rubber gloves onto the salad bars of eight different restaurants. The court heard how the poisonings and murder plots were looked on lightly by some of the conspirators; after all, death was just another part of the journey."

"Bhagwan and the others were eventually arrested for fraud, but most of his followers were too zonked to care."

"In the words of the celebrated English mathematician, Edward Wright, I doubt not that our united efforts "will find the heartiest approval among all intelligent men and children of magnetic science.""

"Not only does Gilbert frequently make use of what he terms "words new and unheard-of," besides attaching to many others a signification far different from that generally recognized at this day, but, what is worse, he retains to a great extent the terminology of the mediaeval scholastic philosophers."

"It is known that in the philosophy of the schoolmen (as in that of Aristotle) form—forma—means that which added to matter—materia—constitutes the true nature of the thing. Matter per se is indifferent, indefinite; form gives it definiteness. The earth is informed with verticity—that is its prime distinction. When any portion of the earth loses verticity it loses its forma—is deformate. To restore to it verticity, is to reformate it, or to informate it. Portions of the earth that are deformate are, as it were, effete, excrementitious, waste matter."

"England's great poet, John Dryden, tells us: "It is almost impossible to translate verbally and well at the same time; for the Latin (a most severe and compendious language) often expresses that in one word which either the barbarity or the narrowness of modern tongues cannot supply in more. ...But since every language is so full of its own proprieties that what is beautiful in one is often barbarous, nay, sometimes nonsense, in another, it would be unreasonable to limit a translator to the narrow compass of his author's words; it is enough if he choose out some expression which does not vitiate the sense.""

"To give here such an analysis as Gilbert's admirable work merits would be impracticable but the short review of it made by Dr. John Robison deserves... reproduction as follows..."

"It is curious to mark the almost perfect sameness of Dr Gilbert's sentiments and language with those of Lord Bacon. They both charge, in a peremptory manner, all those who pretend to inform others, to give over their dialectic labours, which are nothing but ringing changes on a few trite truths, and many unfounded conjectures, and immediately to betake themselves to experiment.""

"He has pursued this method on the subject of magnetism, with wonderful ardour, and with equal genius and success; for Dr. Gilbert was possessed both of great ingenuity, and a mind fitted for general views of things. The work contains a prodigious number and variety of observations and experiments, collected with sagacity from the writings of others, and instituted by himself with considerable expense and labour."

"It would indeed be a miracle if all Dr. Gilbert's general inferences were just, or all his experiments accurate. It was untrodden ground. But on the whole, this performance contains more real information than any writing of the age in which he lived, and is scarcely exceeded by any that has appeared since. We may hold it with justice as the first-fruits of the Baconian or experimental philosophy."

"This work of Dr Gilbert's relates chiefly to the loadstone, and what we call magnets; that is, pieces of steel which have acquired properties similar to those of the loadstone. But he extends the term magnetism and the epithet magnetic, to all bodies which are affected by loadstones and magnets, in a manner similar to that in which they affect each other. In the course of his investigations, indeed, he finds that these bodies are only such as contain iron in some state or other; and in proving this limitation he mentions a great variety of phenomena which have a considerable resemblance to those which he allows to be magnetical, namely, those which he called electrical, because they were produced in the same way that amber is made to attract and repel light bodies. He marks, with care, the distinctions between these and the characteristic phenomena of magnets. He seems to have known, that all bodies may be made electrical, while ferruginous substances alone can be made magnetical."

"It is not saying too much of this work of Dr. Gilbert's to affirm, that it contains almost everything that we know about magnetism. His unwearied diligence in searching every writing on the subject, and in getting information from navigators, and his incessant occupation in experiments, have left very few facts unknown to him."

"We ascribe it to the general indolence of mankind, who do not take the trouble of consulting originals, where things are mixed with others which they do not want, or treated in a way, and with a painful minuteness, which are no longer in fashion. We earnestly recommend it [De Magnete] to the perusal of the curious reader. He will (besides the philosophy) find more facts in it than in the two large folios of Scarella."

"The manner in which "this great man arrived to discover so much of magnetical philosophy" and "all the knowledge he got on this subject," we are told by Sir Kenelm Digby, "was by forming a little load-stone into the shape of the earth. By which means he compassed a wonderful designe, which was, to make the whole globe of the earth maniable; for he found the properties of the whole earth, in that little body; which he therefore called a terrella, or little earth; and which he could manage and try experiences upon, at his will. And in like manner, any man that hath an aim to advance much in natural sciences, must endeavour to draw the matter he enquireth, of into some small modell, or into some kinde of manageable method; which he may turn and wind as he pleaseth. And then let him be sure, if he hath a competent understanding, that he will not misse his mark.""

"Amongst the many other ingenious contrivances frequently alluded to in his book, Gilbert mentions the versorium, an iron needle moving freely upon a point, with which he was enabled to measure excited electricity. He is besides the inventor of "two most ingenious and necessarie Instruments for Sea men to find out thereby the latitude of any place upon sea or land, in the darkest night, that is without the helpe of Sunne, Moone or Starre." These instruments are described in Thomas Blunderville's quarto work entitled "The Theoriques of the seven Planets, shewing their diverse motions... printed at London 1602.""

"In the present volume will be found photo lithographic reproductions of three... title-pages. ...The 1628 is the most elaborate of all known Gilbert title-pages. As described by Prof. Sir Wm. Thomson (Lord Kelvin), it is "in the form of a monument, ornamented with commemorative illustrations of Gilbert's theory and experiments, and a fantastic indication of the earliest European mariner's compass, a floated loadstone, but floating in a bowl on the sea and left behind by the ship sailing away from it! In the upper left-hand corner is to be seen Gilbert's terrella and orbis virtutis. The terrella is a little globe of loadstone, which he made to illustrate his idea that the earth is a great globular magnet. ...The meaning of the little bars bordering the terrella is explained in Gilbert's book... where he alludes to the application of bits of fine iron wire as long as a barley-corn, etc., etc."

"The orbis virtutis is simply Gilbert's expression for what Faraday called the field of force, that is to say, the space round a magnet, in which magnetic force is sensibly exerted on another magnet, as, for instance, a small needle, properly placed for the test."

"Gilbert's word virtue expresses even more clearly than Faraday's word force the idea urged so finely by Faraday, and proved so validly by his magneto-optic experiment, that "there is a real physical action of a magnet through all the space round it tho' no other magnet be there to experience force and show its effects.""

"The only known writing of Gilbert in English is in the form of a letter dated 14th February (?1602) which appears at the end of William Barlowe's "Magneticall Advertisements or divers observations concerning the loadstone," quarto London 1616, and reads as follows: To the Worshipfull my good friend, Mr. William Barlowe at Easton by Winchester. "...you have shewed mee more—and brought more light than any man hath done. ...Johannes Franciscus Sagredus... a great Magneticall man... writeth that hee hath conferred with divers learned men of Venice and with the Readers of Padua and reporteth wonderfull liking of my booke, you shall have a coppy of the letter: Sir, I propose to adjoyne an appendix of six or eight sheets of paper to my booke after a while, I am in hand with it of some new inventions, and I would have some of your experiments, in your name and invention put into it, if you please, that you may be knowen for an augmenter of that art. So for this time in haste I take my leave the xiiyth of February. Your very loving friend, W. GILBERT." His intention to print the short appendix was never carried into effect."

"In his epistle to Dr. Walter Charleton (physician in ordinary to King Charles I), the celebrated English poet, John Dryden, predicts that "Gilbert shall live till loadstones cease to draw, Or British fleets the boundless ocean awe.""

"To the most learned Mr. William Gilbert, the distinguished London physician and father of the magnetic philosophy: a laudatory address concerning these books on magnetism, by Edward Wright."

"In truth, in my opinion, there is no subject-matter of higher importance or of greater utility to the human race upon which you could have brought your philosophical talents to bear. For by the God-given favor of this stone has it come about that the things which for so many centuries lay hid—such vast continents of the globe, so infinite a number of countries, islands, nations, and peoples—have been, almost within our own memory, easily discovered and oft explored, and that the whole circle of the globe has been circumnavigated more than once by our own Drake and Cavendish."

"Sailors of old were often beset, as we learn from the histories, by an incredible anxiety and by great peril, for, when storms raged and the sight of sun and stars was cut off, they knew not whither they were sailing, neither could they by any means or by any device find out."

"Since the magnetic pointer does not always regard the same northern spot in every locality, but usually varies therefrom, either to the east or to the west, tho' it nevertheless hath and holds ever the same variation in the same place, wherever that may be; it has come about that by means of this variation (as it is called) closely observed and noted in certain maritime regions, together with an observation of the latitude, the same places can afterward be found by navigators when they approach and come near to the same variation. ...Thanks to this magnetic indication, that ancient geographical problem, how to discover the longitude, would seem to be on the way to a solution."

"The iron pointer suspended freely and with the utmost precision in equilibrium on its axis, and then touched and excited with a loadstone, dips down to a fixed and definite point below the horizon (e.g. in the latitude of London it dips nearly 72 degrees) and there stands. But because of the wonderful agreement and congruency manifested in nearly all and singular magnetic experiments, equally in the earth itself and in a terrella, (i.e. a spherical loadstone), it seems (to say the least) highly probable and more than probable that the same pointer... will at the equator stand in equilibrium on the plane of the horizon."

"It is highly probable that in proceeding a very short distance from south to north (or vice versa) there will be a pretty sensible change in the dip; and thus the dip being carefully noted once and the latitude observed, the same place and the same latitude may thereafter be very readily found by means of a dip instrument even in the darkest night and in the thickest weather."

"If these books of yours on the Loadstone contained nought save this one method of finding the latitude from the magnetic dip, now first published by you, even so our British mariners as well as the French, the Dutch, the Danes, whenever they have to enter the British sea or the strait of Gibraltar from the Atlantic Ocean, will justly hold them worth no small sum of gold."

"Hardly twenty years after the English artificer, Robert Norman, had in 1576, devised the inclinatorium, which enabled him to determine the dip or inclination of the magnetic needle, Gilbert boasted that, by means of this instrument, he could ascertain a ship's place in dark starless nights. Gilbert commends the method as applicable aere caliginoso [dark atmosphere]; and Edward Knight, the English mathematician, in the introduction which he added to his master's great work, describes this proposal as "worth much gold." Having fallen into the same error with Gilbert of presuming that the isoclinal lines coincided with the geographical parallel circles, and that the magnetic and geographical equators were identical, he did not perceive that the proposed method had only a local and very limited application."

"That discovery of yours, that the entire globe is magnetical, albeit to many it will seem to the last degree paradoxical, nevertheless is buttressed and confirmed by so many and so apposite experiments... that no room is left for doubt or contradiction."

"I come therefore to the cause of magnetic variation—a problem that till now has perplexed the minds of the learned; but no one ever set forth a cause more probable than the one proposed now for the first time in these your books on the Loadstone. The fact that the magnetic needle points due north in the middle of the ocean and in the heart of continents—or at least in the heart of their more massive and more elevated parts—while near the coasts there is, afloat and ashore, an inclination of the needle toward those more massive parts, just as happens in a terrella that is made to resemble the earth globe in its greater elevation at some parts and shows that it is weak or decayed or otherwise imperfect elsewhere: all this makes exceedingly probable the theory that the variation is nothing but a deviation of the magnetic needle to those more powerful and more elevated regions of the globe."

"All those who have imagined or accepted certain "respective points" as well as they who speak of magnetic mountains or rocks or poles, will begin to waver as soon as they read these your books on the Loadstone and will of their own accord come over to your opinion."

"As for... the circular motion of the earth and the terrestrial poles, though many will deem it the merest theorizing, still I do not see why it should not meet with indulgence even among those who do not acknowledge the earth's motion to be spherical, seeing that even they cannot readily extricate themselves from the many difficulties that result from a diurnal motion of the whole heavens."

"Which theory is the more probable, that the equinoctial circle of the earth may make a rotatary movement of one quarter of an English mile, (60 miles being equal to one degree on the earth's equator in one second of time... or that the equator of the primum mobile in the same time, with inexpressible celerity, makes 5,000 miles and that in the twinkling of an eye it makes about 50 English miles, surpassing the velocity of a flash of lightning, if they are in the right who most strenuously deny the earth's motion?"

"It does not seem to have been the intention of Moses or the prophets to promulgate nice mathematical or physical distinctions: they rather adapt themselves to the understanding of the common people and to the current fashion of speech, as nurses do in dealing with babes."

"While we devoutly acknowledge and adore the inscrutable wisdom of the triune Godhead, having with all diligence investigated and discerned the wondrous work of his hands in the magnetic movements, do hold it to be entirely probable, on the ground of experiments and philosophical reasons not few, that the earth while it rests on its centre as its basis and foundation, hath a spherical motion nevertheless."

"Your work, I say, that has been kept back for so many years, your New Physiology of the Loadstone and of the Great Magnet (i.e. the Earth)—a philosophy never to be sufficiently admired; let it go forth into the light of publicity; for believe me... these your books on the Loadstone (De Magnete) will do more to perpetuate your memory than would the monument of any Magnate (Magnatis cujusvis) erected over your grave."

"Every day, in our experiments, novel, unheard-of properties came to light: and our Philosophy became so widened, as a result of diligent research, that we have attempted to set forth, according to magnetic principles, the inner constitution of the globe and its genuine substance, and in true demonstrations and in experiments that appeal plainly to the senses, as though we were pointing with the finger, to exhibit to mankind Earth, mother of all."

"Even as geometry rises from certain slight and readily understood foundations to the highest and most difficult demonstrations, whereby the ingenious mind ascends above the aether: so does our magnetic doctrine and science in due order first show forth certain facts of less rare occurrence; from these proceed facts of a more extraordinary kind; at length, in a sort of series, are revealed things most secret and privy in the earth, and the causes are recognized of things that, in the ignorance of those of old or through the heedlessness of the moderns, were unnoticed or disregarded."

"Why should I, in so vast an ocean of books whereby the minds of the studious are bemuddled and vexed; of books of the more stupid sort whereby the common herd and fellows without a spark of talent are made intoxicated, crazy, puffed up; are led to write numerous books and to profess themselves philosophers, physicians, mathematicians, and astrologers, the while ignoring and contemning men of learning: why, I say, should I add aught further to this confused world of writings, or why should I submit this noble and (as comprising many things before unheard) of this new and inadmissible philosophy to the judgment of men who have taken oath to follow the opinions of others, to the most senseless corrupters of the arts, to lettered clowns, grammatists, sophists, spouters, and the wrong-headed rabble to be denounced, torn to tatters, and heaped with contumely."

"Armed loadstone. One that is furnished with an iron helmet or cap."

"Cuspis (point). The end of a magnetized versorium."

"Crotch. Name sometimes given to the end not touched and excited, although in some instruments both ends are commonly so designated, according as they are most convenient for excitation by the loadstone."

"Declinatorium. A bar or needle movable vertically on its axis and that is excited with a loadstone; used in the dip instrument."

"Electrics. Bodies that attract in the same way as amber."

"Excited magnetic body. One such as iron or steel that acquires magnetism from a loadstone or natural magnet."

"Magnetic coition. This phrase is used rather than attraction because magnetic movements do not result from attraction of one body alone but from the coming together of two bodies harmoniously (not the drawing of one by the other)... the coition is always vigorous, even though heavy substances make opposition."

"Magnetized versorium. An iron bar or needle resting on a point (electroscope) and put in motion—excited—by the loadstone or natural magnet."

"Ostensio. Physical demonstration (opposed to theory)."

"Paralleletically. In the direction of a parallel of latitude."

"Sphere of influence. The entire space over which the force of a loadstone extends."

"Sphere of coition. The entire space over which the smallest magnetic body moves toward a loadstone."

"Verticity. Polar strength—activity (or what in Gilbert's day was understood as energy); not gyrating, vertiginous, but turning power: nor is it polar revolution, but a directing virtue, an innate turning vigor (virtus convertens)."

"The real reason for the animosity and rancour of these detestable wretches towards Amir Shamsuíd-Din was that the wives (and womenfolk) of the mullas of Kashmir were mostly from the (houses of) infidels and polytheists. They had taken them in marriage.1 The faith and solidarity which these women had developed (among their groups) overpowered them (their husbands). Habits, traditions, rituals of the people of these lands had got mixed up with those of the infidels, idol-worshippers, deviants and men of rank ignorance. It had become a normal practice in their households. Those who decided in their families and homes about what is permitted and what is not in Islam, were all infidels and polytheists. 2 The ulema, theologians, men of scholarship and erudition of this land had accepted the customs and traditions of depraved and (innovationñliking) aberrant people instead of the traditions and the path shown by the Holy Prophet of Islam. They had discarded all Islamic laws and the basic tenets of Islamic faith. The commandments of God and the Prophet had been done away with. All of them were engrossed in material acquisitions and kept themselves busy with only transient matters. Marriages of women and girls were performed according to the instructions from the infidels and polytheists. Routine matters like hosting feasts for the bride and the groom, their schedule of daily life, including the hours of waking up and going to sleep, were fixed after seeking permission from the infidels and the polytheists."

"During the visit of Amir Sayyid Hamadani, Sultan Sikandar was the ruler of Kashmir. This ruler expressed his allegiance to Amir-e Kabir and became his disciple and sincere follower. In accordance with the guidance and instructions of Amir-e Kabir, this religion-abiding ruler became the instrument of strengthening the religion of Muhammad and the community of Mustafa. 1 He brought prosperity and embellishment to the faith of the Prophet. He razed to ground all the idol-houses in his country. The idols of the infidels and their idol- houses were destroyed. He cleared his country of the customs of the community of infidels (kafirs) and of vices, aberrations and oppressions of the heretics (zandiq).2 He ordered the infidels and the polytheists to leave the country. For breaking and destroying the idol houses, temples and idols, he is known by the title of Sultan Sikandar, the Iconoclast (but shiken)."

"Bukha of the ruling line of Maqpun dynasty was the ruler in Skardu when Shamsuíd-Din arrived in those lands. He came out at the head of a lage crowd to receive Shamsuíd-Din Araki. At that time, there were no traces of a religion and community (of Muslims) in Tibet. Nobody knew anything about the religion and doctrines of Islam. The ruling class and the subjects in those lands were all infidels and heretics. There were big idol houses in all the forts. People used idols as objects of worship.1 With his auspicious steps on this soil, all rajas, nobles, elite, peasants and common people were admitted to the religion of Islam. High and low, declared his allegiance to Shamsuíd-Din Araki. Men, women, children and old people all embraced Islam and were admitted to its fold. They recited kelima in his presence and renounced the customs, traditions and practices of infidels. He ordered his sufis and dervishes to destroy the idol houses and prayer houses2 (temples) of the infidels wherever they found them. These had to be demolished and razed to the ground leaving no trace behind. The sufis carried out his instructions faithfully and raised mosques and hospices on the ruins of temples and idol houses. With the blessings and guidance of Shamsuíd-Din Araki, ruins of torched idol houses and idols yielded their place to the praying houses of the people of Islamic faith. The arch and the pulpit took the place of idols for the worshippers. Through the instrumentality of this virtuous saint, and guide on the path to the other world, doctrines of the religion of the Prophet and the law of Islamic religion flourished in each and every nook of that land. The hearts of the inhabitants of those lands were enlightened and illuminated by the love and allegiance they showed to the House of the Prophet and the descendants of Haider (meaning ëAli). Under the spiritual guidance of this saint of many parts, some people of those mountainous regions emerged as the bearers of high morals."

"Qazi Muhammad Qudsi had declared his allegiance to Shamsuíd-Din Araki. He often came and sat in his presence. He also used to accompany Araki in his visits and short travels. Once he expressed his intention of destroying the idol house in the village of Pandrethan. He took a boat to reach this place. The Qadi accompanied him. He told the Qadi that he wanted the names of famous and outstanding Shaykhs and saints to be arranged in a verse form and inscribed on the walls of the hospice. After reaching the above-named village (Pandrethan), he, along with a large group of sufis got engaged in destroying the idol house. Scraps of paper, pen and inkpot were brought for the Qadi. He sat under a tree and began compiling the line of leading Shaykhs in verse form. Thus he produced a mathnawi (long poem) by the afternoon prayer. After offering prayers, Araki started to return. The Qadi also sat by his side and said he would like to recite a few couplets he had just then composed. He was permitted to recite them and when he read a few verses, he began to cry out of deep sentiment and bowed his head in praise of God. The Qadiís intense feeling for spiritualism moved Araki. He sent for Mulla Rabi Ganai and Mulla Hajji Ganai both known for their excellent calligraphic skill. The mathnawi composed by Qudsi was divided into two parts one each for the calligraphers who inscribed it on the walls of the hospice, and these can be seen there."

"The foremost of the saints (Araki) wanted to strengthen Islam in this land (Kashmir) for which he made a great effort. On the ruins of destroyed idol houses and the temples of the infidels, mosques and hospices (khanqah) were raised. The groups of polytheists, infidels and heretics of Kashmir were converted to the Islamic religion, some by force and others through strong persuasions. The banner of the law of Mustafa and of Islam as well as the religion of the community of the Prophet was raised high in the skies. In the chapter that follows, we shall describe this story."

"Friends with clear conscience and lofty souls are aware that Shamsuíd-Din arrived in Kashmir during the last days of winter. The first thing he did after arriving in the city was to occupy the house of Baba Ismaëil that stood at the foot of Koh-e-Maran. Here he offered prayers and recitations, and his family rested there. At this time, all parts of the region had been converted to daruíl-Islam (the place/land of peace) by the untiring and auspicious efforts of Sultan Sikandar Butshikan. But with the passage of time and because of being misled by the Satan(s) and Lucifer(s), the region had reverted to daruíl-harb (plac/land of fighting). People who had been admitted to Islamic faith as a result of efforts of the late Sultan (Sikandar), one and all turned away from allegiance and submission to the laws of Islam and set their foot once again in the valley of infidelity, darkness and aberration. Through the support of the Sultans (reference to Zainul ëAbidin) and co-operation of mischievous officials, polytheists, infidels and zandiqs were encouraged to such an extent that every part of Kashmir region flourished with idol houses. The foundations of Islamic tenets and the laws of Islam were fully smashed. Proselytizing, defiance and repudiation (of Islamic ways) had become widespread. At every step a stone was given the name of a deity. Idol houses were raised in every village and habitat. Along the passages and at every conspicuous place, idol temples were built. Something of this has already been said in an earlier chapter. Thus Mir Shamsuíd-Din had made a great effort in dmolishing these idol houses. He exhibited courage in spreading Islam and Islamic law (in Kashmir). Shamsuíd-Din Araki began his enterprise (of destroying temples) with the temple at Koh-i-Maran (Hari Parbat hillock). According to the Hindu astronomers of Kashmir, when the Sun enters the Pisces, it is called the day of spring. However, according to Islamic astronomers, this is the day of coming together of two stars (conjuction of Sun and Moon in Pisces)."

"There existed a big idol temple on top of Koh-i-Maran. 2 In Kashmiri, it was called Hareh Blari (Hareh Brari).3 Groups and clans of Hindu infidels, heretics and unbelievers circumambulated it. The tradition descended from ancient infidels 4 of the land was that on the day of spring (roz-e- bahar) 5 they would assemble here to pray at the idol temples. These people would go up the hillock and offer prayer. They observed the practices and rites of infidelity and polytheism. The people of this land resorted to idolatry and were joined by the Sultan, the officials, the nobles, the heretics, the miscreants and the wretched lot. A festival was observed during the spring at this place. Musicians, drumbeaters, singers, dancers etc. made a big crowd on that day. Many loose women and dancing girls joined them and thus enlivened the assemblies of dance and music. People from all walks of life in the town, merchants and shopkeepers, artisans, labourers and professionals all came to witness the festivities of dance and music. People from the suburbs, villagers and peasants all subscribing to infidelity and heresy came along to get pleasure from the pageant. Hindus and the corrupt people came to see the prostitutes and singing women."

"No means of enjoyment were spared; bouts of drinking wine and indulging in other corrupt practices. These activities disallowed by Islamic law and falling within corrupted morals were conducted openly. The ëulema, Qadis and Sayyids of this land did not perform their duty of judging and enforcing what is allowed and what is not allowed in Islamic law just because they did not want to displease the Sultan and his administrative officers. Amir Shamsuíd-Din Araki stayed in the house of Mulla Ismaëil during the spring season. He heard a loud peal raised by the beating of drums and other musical instruments, in addition to the deafening noise made by the cheering and yelling crowds. He inquired of his followers what the noise was about. They explained the situation. He said that the purpose of his visiting Kashmir region was to pull down the idol houses of infidels and polytheists. His first task was to put an end to the customs, traditions and habits of the kafirs (infidels) and also stamp out corruption and aberration (that had seeped into their life). ìNow it is my duty to eradicate these innovations and the customs of the infidelsî, he exclaimed."

"Thereupon he ordered a band of sufis and devotees to come to his presence. Taking this group along with him, he came to the Koh-i-Maran. He entertained no apprehension from the loud noise of the people and the crowds. Oblivious of the displeasure of the ruler and unmindful of the reaction of law-makers and the law enforcing apparatus, he made all the polytheists, corrupt and dissipated people run away from that place. He ordered baton charging of dancing and singing women, musicians and drumbeaters until they disappeared. Wine and liquor assemblies that had been set up all around were closed down. Pitchers of wine were broken and in this way dark customs of infidels were put to an end. A prayer house of the infidels existed at that place. 1 Its foundation was dismantled, and the idol house was set on fire till it was fully consumed in flames. The bright candle of religion and Islam brought by the Prophet, and the law of his religion and the path of Mustafa and Murtaza (ëAli) was lighted. He initiated the task of breaking the idols and idol houses. From this place began the guidance for the people of the world and the progeny of Adam. With this event began his differences and disagrement with Sultan Fath Shah. The infidels, polytheists and irreligious aberrants came to Fath Shah with their plea. They told him that the Sultan had been kind and affectionate to the ancient people of the land. They said that they had the tradition of coming to Koh-i-Maran at the beginning of spring and enjoying themselves a while after leaving behind cold and frosty days of winter. They added that in ancient times, the rulers and officials joined the commoners in enjoying themselves at this place. This really helped the common people, traders and professionals to snatch moments of joy and happiness. The tired and exhausted peasants and ordinary people would get rejuvenated by participating in the festivities. Everybody prayed for the Sultanís health. But they did not know wherefrom this Mir Shams had appeared. He had disrupted all these festivities and caused pain to the onlookers. He had forced the people to disperse and run away and thus to close the spring festival. Now he, along with a band of his disciples, was busy destroying temples."

"Owing to his satanic impulse and susceptibility to flattery as well as his haughty demeanor, Fath Shah thought of sending his musclemen to punish Araki as well as his band of sufis. He even ordered that the sufis be executed, which, however, was not liked by his courtiers. Maulana Muhammd Ganai was a pupil and a trainee of Araki. He exhorted the Sultan not to cause obstruction in the mission of Araki because the customs (of the infidels) were extraordinarily abominable. When he was informed of Fath Shahís anger and wrath, Araki just laughed it away. On the following day, after having finished recitation of awrad-e-fathiyyeh and before taking breakfast, he took along with him a group of his associates and Sufis and went up the heights of Koh-i-Maran (Hari Parbat). Together they destroyed even the smallest remnant of the idol house and scattered pieces of the idols (previously broken by them)."

"He directed that the ground where the temple stood be levelled so that the foundation for a ëGodís Houseí (bait- ullah) could be laid on it. Construction material needed for the project was collected at the place. In a few days, a mosque for praying and obeying the Creator came up on the site where a temple of the infidels and the Hindus previously stood. He appointed a person for calling people to prayers (muíezzin). He instructed a few sufis to take up their abode there. This was done to ensure that people were summoned to prayers five times a day and congregated in that mosque. He also instructed that awrard-e-fathiyyeh and ëasriyyeh (morning and afternoon recitations) be regularly chanted. A garden at the foot of the Koh-i-Maran (Hari Parbat) was the endownment property of the destroyed temple. After raising the mosque on the site of that demolished temple, he engaged himself in reclaiming the garden and in raising structures on it. Saplings of trees bearing a variety of fruit were planted in it. These were almond, walnut, pistachio and grapevines of husaini, and fakhri variety."

"Between Koh-i-Maran and Zadibal, there stood two temples. These were quite strong. He destroyed both.1 Many stones of the destroyed temples were brought to Nurbakhshiyyeh hospice. The stones were square in shape and brittle. These were used in the boundary wall of the hospice (at Zadibal). One of these temples stood close to the locality of the Baihaqi Sayyids. Local people objected to its destruction and this denied him a good opportunity of laying the foundation of a mosque at this place. Chamkundi temple The temple known as Chamkundi was destroyed. 1 Its walls, five to six yards high, were made of stone. The wall was left as it was but stones and earth that had formed the foundation of the temple inside were taken out. A beautiful mosque was raised inside the compound where the temple stood previously. Some adjoining orchards and gardens were endowed to this temple. He planted melons there and a few sufis were also stationed in the mosque to give call for prayer and to offer congregational prayers. They were also asked to take care of the farm."

"In order to procure timber for the construction of the hospice (at Zadibal), Araki proceeded to Kamaraj. A temple existed there. Groups of infidels and Hindus used to visit this temple for pilgrimage. They would circumambulate it. It was called Mahasen. Within the precincts of the temple, there stood an idol made of stone. It was the object of veneration of the Jews1 and the infidels. Felling of tall fir and deodar trees that surrounded it was prohibited out of respect for the temple. On his arrival at this spot, the first thing for Araki to do was to raze this famous temple to ground. Every trace of the idol and the idol house was effaced. After breaking idols and setting the temple on flames, he engaged himself in felling trees. Some strange things happened in the course of that exercise; it has already been recorded at its proper place. At the site of the temple that was destroyed, he built a Jamiía mosque. The Imam and the muíezzin were asked to take care of the mosque and hold Friday congregational prayers. He managed to obtain from the officers and nobles of the time one kharwar and nine maunds 2 of land, which was endowed to the mosque and was used for the maintenance of its caretakers."

"A big temple existed in Baramulla area in Kamaraj pargana. It was called Warbalaru in Kashmiri language. Araki destroyed it and erected a mosque over its ruins. An Imam and caller of prayer (muíezzin) were appointed for the mosque. They were to arrange Friday congregational prayers and exhort people to offer group prayers five times a day. Since there were fewer chances of Araki visiting this area, he permitted Hazrat Baba to obtain allegiance of the people and appointed him his vicegerant. The purpose was to induce Baba to go on excursion to the suburban areas of Kashmir. He was to reach each village and hamlet so that people volunteered to show him their allegiance. In deference to the wishes of Araki, Hazrat Baba paid visit to the adjoining areas once a year. As a result of his auspicious steps, many people in the adjoining villages and areas became his disciples. Many people in the villages of Baramulla, small traders and businessmen, expressed their reverence for the Baba. Even up to this day, most of the people of this area continue to be in the circle of Babaís disciples."

"A village named Shivaz (sic. Shiv?) in the pargana of Kamaraj is well known. An imposing temple existed there. It was called Nandraza in Kashmiri. At this temple the infidels and the misguided people used to celebrate a festival. Araki destroyed the temple. A jamiía mosque was raised on the ruins of the destroyed temple. Mulla Muhammad, the uncle of Mulla Nasir, was made the muíezzin of the mosque. They were charged with the duty of assembling people for Friday congregational prayers. Two or three kharwars of land was allocated to the mosque for the subsistence of the staff. The call for prayers five times a day and offering of Friday congregational prayers at this mosque continue till this day."

"Bomar temple A village called Chogul in pargana Kamaraj was well known to local people. There existed a massive temple.2 In Kashmiri it was called Bomar. It used to attract big crowds of people. A dervish among the disciples of Araki was known as Shri Bhat 1 who was a leading personality among the infidels of Shahabuíd-Din Pora.2 God Almighty blessed him by guiding him for conversion to Islam. He accepted the true faith in Arakiís presence. Thus he was admitted to the circle of his dervishes and devotees. Shamsuíd-Din Araki dispatched him along with many dervishes and disciples for the task of destroying the Bomar temple. As the contingent of disciples (of Araki) passed through Sopor town, the people in Chogul got wind of it. Villagers of Bomar were mostly soldiers by profession. A powerful person among the people and tribes of this village was called Ahaldwar (Haldar?). He enjoyed the confidence and trust of high government functionaries and nobles. Prompted by him, the people in this area prepared to give the followers of Araki a fight. They maintained nullah Pohru 3 as the dividing line and stood to defend the temple and the villages on their side of the stream. The dervishes and sufis encamped on the other side of the stream. The contesting groups fought for two days. The villagers withdrew and the group of the sufis overpowered them. A victory was recorded. They crossed the river and pulled down the temple house. The place was densely forested. The trees were felled and the site was made plain for laying the foundation of a mosque. The idol pulled down from the temple was placed under the threshold of the mosque so that visitors to the mosque would trample it under their feet. The practice of calling people for five time prayers and offering congregational prayers on Fridays was put in place. When Araki was told about fighting and also of the bravery and courage of Shri Bhatt, he assigned to him the task of enforcing permissible and non-permissible in Islam in the rural area of Kamaraj. This dervish proved to be a person of firm faith and true dedication. He destroyed the famous temples and idol houses of Kamaraj, which for example, included those of Uttarasher (sic), Badakot, Kubisher (sic), and Gushi temple in the localities of Kandi, Shaki Shiraz (sic), Kupwarah and Drang. 1 n the remote areas of the towns of Sopor and Baramulla, and in inner rural areas of Kamaraj, he pulled down all temples and built mosques in their place. From those times down to present day, Islamic system and way of life prevail in full force in those vast areas. The religion of the Prophet and the customs of the community of Mustafa are prosperous everywhere. The temples of Jatti Renu, Kandi Renu, Bachhi Renu 1 in Kamaraj and Satwal 2 (?) temple in Sopor were all razed and destroyed. Araki had built the Nurbakhshiyyeh hospice (khanqah) in the locality of Zadibal. To the right side of this hospice, there existed a big temple well known (to Kashmiri Hindus). In local language it was called Paneh Renu. There existed a spring by its side, which was skirted by tall fir and other kinds of trees. Araki wanted the temple to be destroyed and the trees felled. A person named Khwaja Gharami lived close to the temple. He and his men obstructed the destruction of the temple. Satanís prompting had entrapped them. They were enslaved by infidelity and aberrations, had accepted falsehood and believed in what the corrupt people said. This had made them stone-hearted. Khwaja Gharami was highly influential with the people in that locality. Men, women, wives and husbands all came out to obstruct the destruction of the temple. Thus Araki was denied the opportunity of destroying that temple."

"Araki nursed the secret desire of destroying the aforementioned temple. One night, Bejeh Agha, the mother of Shaykh Danial saw a dream. She saw that lofty trees around the temple in question bowed their tops before Shaykh Daniyal while he was still a child. She recounted the dream to Araki who interpreted it to say that while he himself could not fulfil the task of demolishing the temple and felling the trees, his son Shaykh Daniyal would accomplish it. The fortune of accomplishing that task actually fell to the lot of Shaykh Daniyal. Although he was yet to reach adolescence, he performed the act of pulling down the temple. It was in this meeting with Malik Musa Raina that Hazrat Baba sought the permission of destroying the temple of Paneh Renu. On the next day, after reciting awarad-e-fathiyyeh, Hazrat Baba took along with him Shaykh Daniyal and a group of dervishes and proceeded towards the pond. 1 He seated Shaykh Daniyal by the bank of the canal and directed his followers to begin the felling of trees. They hewed down trees that did not bear any fruit. Since Shaykh Daniyal was seated facing qibla (the Mecca, generally the West for the people in the East) the falling trees fell towards the west as if bowing to Shaykh Daniyal. Thus the dream of his mother Bejeh Agha came true. When Araki returned from his travels in Baltistan, he built a mosque on the ruins of the temple and appointed staff to look after it."

"A few days later, he said that a big temple existed close to the graveyards of the Sayyids and Shaykh Bahauíd-Din.1 Many infidels, polytheists and corrupt persons invariably assembled there and performed the blasphemous rites of infidelity and heresy. In Kashmiri it was called Bomeh Swami.2 He said that pulling down the temple and destroying it was incumbent upon the Muslims. He came in person to supervise the demolition of the temple. Stones and earth at the site were heaped into a small mound on which a platform was raised equal to a manís height. A mosque was constructed on it and a muíezzin was appointed. Shaykh Daniyal gave this place to Malik Regi Chak for burying the dead of his family and close relatives and friends. The dead of his (Regi Chakís) 1 clan remain buried here. The infidels and polytheists considered both of those temples sacred."

"Here lived a learned and austere man known for his miracles. People, high and low, showed him great reverence. He was Makhdum Maulana Usman Majzoob. His house and seat were situated near the Hamadaniyyeh khanqah (hospice) in Srinagar. Occasionally, he would come to Nowshehra to meet with the Sultan. In doing so he had to pass by Koh-i- Maran. Whenever he passed by the Bimeh Swami (Bhimasvamin) temple, he would get down from his horse, and bow his head while facing the temple. It was to show regard to the idol house. He used to walk some distance, and only when the temple was out of his sight would he mount his horse. While visiting Zadibal, this man, absorbed in the divine, always dismounted, showed reverence to the temple and then startd walking on foot. When both the temples were out of his sight, he would mount the horse. Shams Ganai, a close associate of Araki, asked him why he did that unbecoming act. He asked, ìIt is so strange. You are a learned man and one who does miracles. But you dismount your horse while passing by the temple. Common people will try to follow your bad example.î Maulana Uthman answered, ìThis temple is an abode of all satanic and devilish spirits of this land. We did not have enough strength to fight with them. So we adopted a conciliatory attitude so that they did not disturb and obstruct our prayers and submission to God. We did not want that they should create distraction in our minds. If we had not adopted a conciliatory attitude, they would have unleashed untold oppression on us because we did not have the power to resist them. ìGod willing, very soon a godly man will arrive in these lands who will be the friend of all blessed people. God Almighty will give him the strength to win a decisive victory over the satanic and devilish groups of this land. He will drive away from this land all forces and groups of satanic infidels and wretched hypocrites so that the lands (of Kashmir) are cleansed of stains and stigma of polytheists, dirty infidels, idols and idol houses. He will relieve us from having anything to do with the temples, idol house and idols.î This writer heard the above story several times from his teacher Mir Husayn Munajjim. Since Maulana Uthman had spiritual links with Shaykh Bahauíd-Din Kashmiri it could be the reason why he sometimes did strange things.1 Whatever he foretold had already happened. After planting his steps on this land, Amir Shamsuíd-Din embarked on demolishing of the temples and idols of the community of darkness. He purged the whole land of traditions, laws, beliefs and rituals of infidels. He lifted to sky the banner of Islam and Islamic community. He banished from this land Satans and devils that misled the people along the path of aberration. The fiends who entrapped the people were extirpated from the land. Dervishes gifted with powers of foretelling found that some large groups of infidels of satanic and develish disposition (from Kashmir) crossed the Indian mountains and proceeded towards the lands of Hind in large numbers. These armies comprised men, women and children. People who saw them proceeding to Hind asked them who they were and what was the reason of their exodus? They expressed deep anguish. Giving out loud cries and moans they said, ìWe are the devas 1(angels) and pari 2(s) (fairies) of this land (Kashmir). Our ancestors lived there from times immemorial. Nobody ever interfered with or obstructed our affairs. But Mir Shamsuíd-Din arrived in this land from Arak at a time when we were living there. He has forced us to leave our homes. He has destroyed our houses and temples, and razed them to ground. Some groups from our community adopted his faith of Islam and its tenets and laws. As such, they have been allowed to continue staying in Kashmir. But those who did not conform to his faith and its sharia, were not at all allowed to stay there.î The fact of the matter is that what happened was precisely what they had reported. Those who stayed back surrendered to Araki and his followers."

"I swear by God that in these times (after the tradition had been laid down by Araki), many men of parts and spiritual excellence were born who pulled down huge temples and destroyed them completely. Innumerable idols and statues were struck down and thrown into dust. None of his disciples or attendants was harmed in any way. He dmolished numerous imposing and stately idol-houses, yet nobody ever had the courage and strength to bring even the slightest harm to the family members of these noble men (sufis and dervishes). The possibility of bringing harm to Hazrat Baba did not arise. Shah Qasimís blessings Shah Qasim came to know the story of destruction of temples and idols at the hands of Shamsuíd-Din Araki. In great surprise he asked Dervish Salman, Dervish Walid and the group of other dervishes who had proceeded to Arak as emissaries, as to how it was possible for Araki to raze to the ground such lofty temples and the idols as these places are the habitat of the ginii. He asked whether his sufis had encountered any mishaps. The dervishes (from Kashmir) answered, ìYour Holiness! We have pulled down and destroyed so many temples and idol houses; we have razed to ground so many imposing and lofty structures (of infidels). Never did any one from among our sufis ever come to grief or suffer a mishap or contract a disease. On the contrary, as a result of the blessings thereof, we all remained in good health and we feel glad and satisfied.î Having heard this happy news, he raised his hands for thanksgiving; dervishes (from Kashmir) also raised their hands and prayed to God Almighty that He blessed Araki with profound courage and victory in his mission. They offered fateha (thanksgiving) and prayers. God Almighty bestows munificence on His beloved and obedient followers. He helps them with success. From among the Shaykhs of high order and stalwarts among the spiritualists, none had the honour of breaking so many idols and destroying so many temples as Shamsuíd-Din Araki had for the sake of propagating, and strengthening prosperity of Islam. Only he was blessed to eradicate lock, stock and barrel the dark and depraved customs of the community of darkness, their rituals, laws and beliefs. No Sultan, Padishah, Governor or noble could claim credit for an achievement like that. We shall take up this matter again in this work."

"Musa Rainaís allegiance The reins of power and authority had passed into hands of Malik Musa Raina. He had become a devotee of Shamsuíd- Din Araki, and had made it a point to do everything for his mentorís satisfaction and pleasure. He carried out his orders and instructions with great earnestness. In fact, Araki had doled out lengthy lessons and pieces of advice to him in matters of faith, and had succeeded in roping him into following his line. He had emphasized that such noble deeds would ensure his entry into paradise (in hereafter). Thus he had prepared Musa Rainas mind for raising high the banner of Islam, the sharia of Mustafa and the community of the Prophet. Musa Raina devoutly worked to translate this mission into practice. He wrecked the very roots of idolatry, infidelity and heresy. He raised to the heights of the sky the heads of those who followed Islamic faith. It was a matter of great pride and honour for them."

"Consequently, every day groups of infidels numbering five hundred to two thousand or even more came to the residence of Shamsuíd-Din bringing with them their ceremonial thread (zunnar) for re-conversion to Islam. Dervishes and Sufis of Araki spread out in different parts of Kashmir. None among the nobles or the men of authority in the land had the courage to cause them obstruction in their mission. When infidels began to pour in at the seat of Shamsuíd-Din Araki in such large numbers, his subordinates and dervishes, particularly the father of this writer (Maulana Jamal uíd-Din Khalilullah) would take off the ceremonial threads from the necks of the infidels and polytheists, administer kelima to them, make them eat beef and get them circumcised. A large number of barbers was kept at hand to undertake the task of circumcision of all fresh converts to Islamic faith. In each village, locality and habitat, a master-mulla was appointed to educate the converts on the Quraín, principles of Islam, system of offering prayers (namaz), fasting, Islamic laws and tenets of faith etc. Thus all infidels, apostates and polytheists once again became Musulman. No person was left without circumcision or reciting the kelima. Infidels in villages and rural areas were also converted in the same manner. Only a very small group did not convert. Their fathers and forefathers had fled to Nagarkot during the reign of Sultan Sikandar, the Iconoclast. Some of them had settled in Kishtwar and others had fled to Jammu. As they had not converted to Islam, their descendants were spared the compulsion of conversion and were left in whatever condition they were."

"Araki organized a brigade of dervishes with instructions to move about in towns, villages, habitats, and localities. Wherever they found an idol house or an idol or a trace of idolatry, they would swoop on it, pull down the temple and eradicate the customs and practices of idolatry. He personally supervised the destruction of the idol houses that were found in the peripheries of the city (of Srinagar). At a few places, he had to fight battles against the heretics. In such cases, he would consider the opportunity a boon and declare the resisting folks as the ë people of warí (meaning enemy). He would turn to God for thanksgiving and say that the duties and obligations to which they had been called were accomplished. This would bring them success in the clashes (with the infidels)."

"Bakhi Renu temple A temple existed at the low-lying part of the city (of Srinagar). In local dialect it was called Bakhi Renu. It was a site for the grouping of infidels, apostates and corrupt people. Festivities would be held here several times in a year in which singing, dancing and music playing women would participate. People from around that locality ó men, women, young and oldó all used to flock to the temple to enjoy the festivity. Many un-Islamic and corrupt practices would be observed here. In one part of its premises, people grouped and enjoyed drinking alcohol and wine. On hearing the details of these corrupt practices observed in that temple, Shamsuíd-Din Araki took with him a handful of sufis and proceeded to raze the temple to ground. People who came as spectators in the festivity were baton charged and dispersed."

"Udran temple. In the neighbourhood of the above-mentioned temple, there stood another idol house called Udran by the infidels of Hindostan and Jammu. It was pulled down and destroyed. When the infidels came to know about the destruction of the temple, they took bows and arrows and other arms and came out to fight with the group of the sufis of Amir Shamsuíd-Din. The sufis and dervishes were locked in a battle with the infidels for several days. In this great jihad, the infidels and polytheists received reinforcement, which forced the group of the dervishes and sufis to assemble on the open fields towards Zaldagar so that Araki was protected from enemyís attack. The infidels saw that the Muslims withdrew towards Zaldagar plains. This infused courage in them and they launched an attack on the Musalmans. Many sufis received wounds. The infidels overpowered them and the sufis were defeated. They had to run away towards the city."

"Araki was brought under security to the house of Abdal Magray.1 He remained unscathed in that fighting. At that time, Abdal Magray was not at his residence. His wife was the daughter of Malik Musa Raina. Another house stood in close proximity to the house of Abdal Magray. From the windows, doors and ventilators, womenfolk and servants hurled garbage at the sufis because they had demolished their temples and broken the idols."

"This news was brought to Malik Musa Raina. He dispatched his son Malik ëAli Raina at the head of a contingent to disperse the kafirs. Araki did not stay in the house of Musa Raina. He demanded that permission of demolishing the temple be issued forthwith. He said that either he (Musa Raina) punish the culprits and show them the path of religion or banish him along with his family from the land so that he would return to Arak."

"Musa Raina was deeply moved by the sight of Arakiís impatience and chagrin, and the wounded sufis and dervishes. He accompanied Araki on the mission of demolishing the temple. Malik Musa Raina sent his son Malik ëAli Raina to arrest the leading personalities of the infidels. Many of them were sent to prisons and many were banished to the regions of Hindostan and Jammu. Araki then engaged himself in the demolition of the temple. Even the smallest trace of the temple was effaced. The stone-idols were broken into pieces and crushed. Wooden idols were set on fire and the temple complex was inundated. After destroying the temple completely traces of not even a single stone were left behind; stones and earth were removed from the site of the temple and the ground was levelled. After completing the construction of a mosque on the site, Araki appointed an Imam to lead prayer assemblies and also a caller for prayers (muíezzin). He gave it the name Islampora. Sayyid Badla Sayyid Badla reports, ìOne day, I came to the presence of Amir Shamsuíd-Din Araki. He was preparing to leave his place of residence along with a group of sufis. They were about to proceed on the mission of demolishing a temple called Bakhi Renu (?). I also joined the band of his followers. When we reached the site, I found a big crowd of people busy enjoying themselves and indulging in merry-making. Sufis baton-charged and dispersed them. After some time, many people came from the regions of Udaran 1 (?), and Sipahiyan-e-Hind (?) 1 , all equipped with war material. They were ready for a battle. We came close to them. I found that Araki stood in front of the infidels like a hungry tiger ready to pounce on the flock of goats. Every kafir, with a sword in his hand, was moving towards Araki and beating the earth with sticks. A contingent of the sufis followed Araki. They made a charge on the enemy and overpowered them. This was followed by the demolition of the temple. From among the infidels of Udran, three or four tried to obstruct Araki. Amir Sayyid Badla turned to this writer and said that my father had become a shield for Araki in the manner of a moth making rounds of a burning candle. The infidels dealt repeated blows on Araki but my father warded off each stroke and did not allow him to go a single step forward. The contingent of the sufis engaged the infidels. We saw that the infidels were receiving reinforcement intermittently and their fighting strength was increasing numerically. Some of us received wounds and some others showed signs of exhaustion. Thus all the sufis headed towards Zaldagar. 2 A large crowd of infidels gathered on the battleground. The sufis wanted to come back from Zaldagar and fight against the infidels. However, this writerís father stopped them from makng that move. One of his hands was wounded but despite that he held Araki with both hands and did not let him move forward."

"Meanwhile, numerical strength of the infidels increased. The contingent of the sufis that had proceeded towards the city came to the house of Malik Musa Raina. They hoped to carry Musa Raina with them to demolish the temple. Meanwhile, Araki told my father,î Oh Sayyid! I have demolished so many idol houses in this land but nowhere did I have to face resistance. Here at this place I seized an opportunity of fighting a jihad against the infidels and the polytheists. Therefore I shall name this place Islamporî. This writerís father got up and congratulated Araki and said that God willing, with the blessings of this jihad, with the guidance and training imparted by him (Araki), the tenets of Islam and its laws would prosper. Since he (Araki) had waged a jihad against the infidels (kuffar) at this place it came to be named Islampor."

"There were other idol houses (in Kashmir). He went personally to supervise their demolition. A temple stood on the island of Kol Blareh1 (?). In local language it was called Mankeh Renu. It enjoyed great respect and credibility in the eyes of local infidels and idol-worshippers. Araki came to this temple in person and got it demolished. He built a mosque on its foundation. Having done it, he left behind one of his dervishes for conducting five-time Muslim prayers and for giving call for prayers (azaan). One kharwar of land and ten kharwars of paddy per annum were allotted to him for his maintenance. Every year melons and melons were cultivated on its land. Sufis were assigned the duty of taking care of fruits grown there, such as melons and grapes. Grapes were carried to the locality of Zadibal for distribution among the dervishes and sufis. Nobles and peers of the city who visited him enjoyed eating delicious fruits. He took great care for the maintenance of this orchard."

"Janak Renu temple A big idol house stood towards the north close to Idgah. Kashmiris called it Janak Renu. Today this place is known as ìKalanvethî (sic). Araki demolished the idol-house. A beautiful mosque was raised on the site. Orchards endowed to the temple were turned into melon and melons growing farms. Many saplings were planted here. A mulla with a couple of sentries was appointed to look after it. Araki supported them partially from his own funds. Occasionally he would take the sufis with him and pay a visit to the place."

"Vetalun temple 1 Situatead near Rainawari 2 , it was a well-known temple. Infidels and idol worshippers attached much importance to it. Jogis (mendicants) from Hindostan and other parts came in large groups on pilgrimage to this temple and indulged in idol worshipping. Araki came to this place and got it demolished. An imposing mosque was built on its ruins/site. The ground lying all around the temple was cleared of dirt, and cells were erected on it. A couple of kharwars of land was earmarked for the Imam (who conducts prayers) and the muezzin. Thereafter, congregational prayers were offered at this place. Adjoining lands were converted into orchards. The sons of Maulana (?) were in possession of these lands for some time. Later on, supported and assisted by Sayyid Ibrahim Khan, Shams Bhatt wrested the lands from the possession of Maulanaís sons. Many buildings were raised on it. No noble or official of authority could obstruct Shams Bhatt (from maintaining his hold on that property)."

"The temple called Tashwan 1 was destroyed. Most of its big stones were used for building the Zadibal hospice. Some of the stones retrieved from the destroyed temple were carried to Islampur for use in the hospice at that place. Some stones were used in the construction of a canal at the same place. Foundation of a mosque had hardly been laid when Kaji Chak2 showed himself up. He met with Araki. Till that day, Kaji Chak did not have a plot of land or a house in the city to live in. He requested Araki that the land in question be handed over to him. Araki congratulted him and distributed the land among his sons and grandsons. It was here on this spot that Kaji Chak ascended the throne of Kashmir.3 It was all owing to the blessings and prayers of Araki that he reached the highest position of kingship."

"Another temple There was another big temple called (missing). Araki personally went to demolish it. A Hindu lived in its outhouse. He had full command over the traditon of idol - worshipping and was a well known sorcerer of his times. On learning that the temple was being demolished, he returned to his cell and indulged in sorcery expecting some physical calamity to befall Araki. Araki had chosen a place to sit down and watch the demolition of the temple. Suddenly, a splinter flying away from a stone struck his face leaving a small wound on his forehead and face. The Hindu priest came to know of what had happened. He called his sons and associates and directed them to make preparations to see him dead. He told them that he had ascertained that this man (Araki) would be struck by a calamity but he could ward off death through his inner strength. Now this sorcery would boomerang on him. Therefore they should make preparations for his death rites. It was mid-night when the sorcerer became a victim of his own sorcery, which carried him to hell. Next morning, Araki returned to the scene where the demolition of the temple was underway. He and the sufis saw that the dead body of this Hindu was being carried for cremation.1 The temple was completely demolished. A mosque was raised on its ruins. Few kharwars of land were allotted to dervish Tajuíd-Din for its maintenance and for calling the people to prayers. This Tajuíd-Din had accompanied Araki on latterís visit to Arak and had spent six years in the service of Shah Qasim. He had also spent many years in Arakiís kitchen. His duty was to distribute food and soup among the dervishes. When Araki returned to Kashmir for the second time from Arak, Tajuíd-Din was among the first to receive him. During the lent, he called people to prayers. The aforementioned place is now in the possession ofTajuíd- Dins heirs."

"Udernat (sic) Temple A temple stood on the island of Dal. Kashmiris called it Udernatau. Araki demolished it and on its ruins built a small mosque. He put this mosque and the trees around it in my fathers (Maulana Khaleelullah) possession. Delicious grapes and fruits were produced from this island garden. For many years peasants used to bring fruits and grapes to our house. After many years, tyrants and oppressors snatched the orchard and the trees from us and became its (new) possessors."

"Sadasmolo temple A temple stood close to the Bazar-e Misgaran.1 Kashmiris called it Sadas Molo. Araki ordered its demolition. The site was levelled and Khwaja Tajuíd-Din, the most respectable and dependable person in the city happened to be a devoted follower of Araki. Once Araki told him that he desired to offer that site to him (Tajud-Din). He was to construct a house and live there. 2 The Khwaja was one among the top-ranking nobles of the town. He considered it below his dignity to grab the endowment property. He had second thoughts but Araki insisted and bestowed it upon him along with the mosque. His progeny continues to possess the estate."

"Modrenu (?) temple A temple existed in the village of Sudrabal3 near Nowshehra. It was called Modrenu(?). A canal had been dug on the heights of Lar mountain. It always remained full of water and Kashmiris called it Gangabal. After every eight or ten years, they used to say that the waters of Ganga would flow down. Men and women of this land visited it for consigning the bones of their dead into its waters. The Hindus used to take a dip in it. They observed the customs of dualists and infidels, which they called supreme meditation. They thought that pilgrimage to this place meant pilgrimage to all the holy places of (the Hindu mythology). The people of Hindostan considered it as holy as the water of the Ganges. Anybody visiting this country definitely paid a visit to the Sudarabal temple and had a dip in the waters of its spring. Anybody who did not take a dip was considered dirty and impure. After bathing in the spring, people returned to their places. Araki demolished this temple and built a mosque on its ruins. The temple lands were seized as endowment, and a mulla was appointed to conduct five-time congregational prayers according to Islamic tradition; its vineyard was given to be the property of the mosque. During the lifetime of Araki, infidels didnít have the courage to go on pilgrimage to Gangabal shrine not to speak of going around the place. Story of Hamadaniyyeh hospice A more enviable achievement than that of demolishing idol houses and laying them waste was purifying the pious hospice of Hazrat Amir from the contamination of polluted people, atheistic mendicants and detestable foreigners. It is necessary to recount this story. People with enlightened souls are aware that there is no place more sacred and venerable than Mecca. Before the creation of Adam, this place had the honour to be the prayer house of the whole world and also of the angels. After God Almighty accepted Adams repentance, that place (Mecca) was earmarked as his native land where he had to take up his abode. After a short time, there came the divine command that an auspicious house be built at that site, and prayers be offered to God the Creator, so that his (Adams) progeny would see how God is to be worshipped. This holy house underwent changes at the time of Noahís (Great) Deluge. Hazrat Ibrahim Khalilullah was ordered for the second time to rebuild Kaíaba so that it became the place of circumambulation for exalted angels and a prayer house and mosque for the prophets. After a long time, this sacred House of God became a place of circumambulation, a place of obeisance for the devotees, an object of visitation for the angels, a source of zam zam water, a place for the idols and a house for the statues. Some Quraysh chieftains, known for their defiance and stern disposition, turned this House of God into the abode of devilish and satanic people."

"For innumerable years, this house of divine light and bliss became the worshipping place for sorcerers and depraved people and the centre for worshippers of idols (made of stones). When the last of the prophets (Muhammad) saw this situation, he lifted Imam ëAli Murtaza on his shoulders so that defiled and impure idols and images were struck down in the House of God. In this way the baituíl-haram (the House of Sanctity) was cleansed of idols and images. In the same manner, Kashmir was a den of wicked people, the source of infidelity and a mine of corruption and aberration. The auspicious steps of Amir Sayyid ëAli Hamadani, the peer of ëAli, turned it (Kashmir) into a place where the law of the religion of Mustafa and the fundamentals of the faith brought by the Prophet flourished fully. Under the guidance and preaching of Amir-e Kabir (Sayyid ëAli Hamadani), the banner of Islamic religion achieved supreme heights. The result of the preaching of His Holiness was that the place of war (daruíl-harb) turned into a place of peace/security (daruís - salam). His precepts and preachings were as follows."

"A langar (?) is included in the idol-breaking spree of Araki. This langar khaneh (alms house) was located in the locality of Raenwor close to the waters of Dal Lake. Former rulers had built it and officials and administrators carried out its repair and maintenance work during their days. Mendicants (jogis) were provided facilities of halting and staying at this place. Sultans and rulers of Kashmir, who were alien to Islam, shariía and its commandments, had endowed Panzgam 1 in pargana Kamaraj, Nadihal 1 and other villages to this ëalms house (langar khaneh) for the maintenance of its inmates. Hindu mendicants (jogis) from India and the countryside and other pilgrims used to stay in the almshouse and pray to the idols. The almshouse was their base camp wherefrom they would proceed on pilgrimage to all temples in Kashmir. At the time of returning to their respective places, they re- assembled here. Some of the pilgrims and jogis would return to India but some would stay on at this place for the whole year and derive consolation from worshipping idols. The community of the jogis and the group of heretics did not adhere to any faith and community. There was nothing by the name of religion and religious law for them. In fact, these people had forsaken Islam and faith. They were people with no faith at all. The zandiqs and atheists were aliens to any faith not bound by the rules and principles of religion. They considered all forbidden, illegal and disallowed things genuine and permissible. Such type of people resided in the aforesaid almshouse at Jogi Langar. These people drank (liquor) and took intoxicants openly in the almshouse. They would do irreligious deeds. They indulged in debauchery and other vices openly and with no reservations. None among Islamic scholars, Qadis and police supervisors taught them what was allowed and what was forbidden in Islamic religion. Despite all these lecherous deeds, some foolish kings, nobles and Sultans provided support for drinks, clothing and other expenses of the community of darkness. They considered these facilities gifts or alms."

"Shamsuíd-Din Araki came to know about the ways and practices of the lost people; he was also informed about their actions. Therefore, he mustered courage and began thought of destroying the temple (of Jogi Langar at Rainawari). He dispatched this writerís father to the presence of Sultan Fath Shah to obtain his permission for the demolition of the almshouse. The aforesaid ruler was of bad conviction, inimical and not without prejudice (towards the Nurbakhshiyyeh). He made many pretexts for not giving permission to do so. He said that the almshouse had been built by Sultan Zainuíl-íAbidin and he would not permit the demolition of a structure that had been raised by that great king as it perpetuated blessings for that departed soul. My father used to do good deeds apart from working for Shamsuíd-Din. He spoke plain to everybody. He told the Sultan that Sultan Zainuíl-íAbidin was neither Shaykh Junaid Baghdadi 1 nor any other local Shaykh so that the structure raised by him could not be dismantled. As that corrupted prevaricator of a king had built many other buildings, it was better that the ones in question were demolished. He said there were many old structures that deserved to be demolished and destroyed. The king was upset on hearing these words. He became enraged and furious and wanted to punish my father. But his senior ministers and courtiers interceded and my father was saved from the kings wrath. He recounted the story before Araki. Magray permits Shamsuíd-Din Araki then sent my father to Ibrahim Magray who headed the justice department of this land at that time. The purpose was to seek permission from him for the demolition of Jogi Langar. Ibrahim Magray was too glad and ready to give permission. The letter authorising demolition was given to him (this writerís father). On the following day, Araki took sufis along with him and engaged them in demolishing the structure. The site was levelled for the construction of a mosque and a prayer ground. A big mosque came up on the estrade. Its walls were raised high. It took them one full day to raise the foundation. As a result of the efforts of Araki, the mosque was built in a short time. On its completion, he said that the mosque was so imposing, spacious and grand that it could be equal to masjiduíl-haram (the mosque in Mecca). He said that anybody desiring to imagine the height and grandeur of the mosque in Mecca may visit this mosque and look at it intently to get the idea of what that mosque is like. Infidels resist There existed several groups of infidels and idol worshippers in the locality of Raenwari. 1 The chief of the community was a powerful and staunch idolater. He had established relations with some of the nobles and senior government functionaries. The infidels got his support and joined hands to confront the sufis. Apart from being inimical towards the dervishes and sufis, they were even prepared to fight against them. Thus fighting took place between the two sides. Araki called this fight a jihad."

"Araki also demolished the idol-temple at Pandrethan with his own hands. Its structure was lofty and massive. Sultan Sikandar, the Iconoclast, had brought stones from this very idol temple for use in Jamiía Mosque 2 and the tombs of the Sultan(s). Stones in the exterior of the temple were pulled down and put in the walls of Jamiía Mosque. The boundary wall of Mazar-i- Salatin 3 was also built with these stones. No resistance had been faced (by the demolishers) either during the demolition of the temple or while taking away its stones. The temple (ruined by Sikandar the Iconoclast) was rebuilt and restored to its previous glory by Sultan Zainul-ëAbidin. He had allowed the revival of the customs and practices of the wicked and corrupt infidels in this temple. Every year, festivals in the name of goddess were celebrated in it. Singing and dancing assemblies were also organized on the occasion as in other idol temples. Amir Shamsuíd-Din arrived at the spot with the intention of demolishing the idol temple. He found the structure lofty and massive. An idol stood planted in the ground besides the building. Sultan Sikandar, the Iconoclast, had not succeeded in breaking it. It had been put to flames several times but in vain. It was pounded with iron rods and other strong metals but it did not break. Not a single limb of the statue could be broken. When Shamuíd-Din came close to the statute that was placed in the lower storey, he ordered that it be broken, and removed from its place. The site thus obtained was prepared for the construction of prayer houses and cells for the dervishes going into retreat (chilleh). He put in great labour for destroying and breaking the idols of the infidels. However, the statue in question did not break and Araki felt rather dismayed. It was then decided that earth and stones underneath the idol be removed to make a deep crater. This and other statues were buried in the ditch and covered with earth and stones. Other groups (of dervishes) raised four cells on each of the four corners of the complex. The stones were cut with care and the surface was made smooth so that these looked attractive. The (new) structure that was raised (on the ruins of the demolished temple) comprised two floors. The first floor was prepared for the devotees to offer five-time prayers and Friday congregational prayers. During the days of retreat, Araki would make a few sufis sit in the mosque and the hospice. He guided and trained them out of his inner grace. He showed his affection and goodwill for the dervishes and the seekers of spiritual excellence."

"In the same way, he demolished the building at Metna (?)1 spring. It was converted into a mosque. The site was developed. Not a trace of the demolished temple was left behind. A mosque built close to the spring still exists. Kharboshtaz (?) Temple He also demolished the temple of Kharboshtaz (?). This one was more popular than many other idol temples of Kashmir. Ten temples demolished There existed ten temples in a certain village. They were given different names, such as Jwalamukhi, Khodrenu, Lankeh Renu, Bakhi Renu, Luti Renu, Soneh Renu, Parzdan, Tsarenmal, Kupwur and Zachaldor. 1 Shamsuíd-Din demolished these temples and built mosques at their site. A few kharwars of land was endowed to these mosques for the maintenance of the Imam and the muíezzin so that they were able to discharge their religious duties without distraction. Apart from the call for the prayer, five-time prayers, Friday congregational prayers were also offered here. The Imam used to deliver sermons to the villagers on religious (Islamic) duties and obligations. They would acquaint them with the tenets of Islam and Islamic faith and exhort them to be Musalmans. Sonwar 2 temple A temple stood in the village called Sonwar. On the ruins of the (demolished) temple, a mosque was raised so that five- time a-day namaz (prayer) could be offered. Advin 1 Pargana(?) temple A temple stood in Advan pargana. It was demolished and a mosque was built at the site. Mullas were appointed to bring Islam to the place. They were taught the obligations of faith and Islam, namaz and ablution, etc. Kalehbod temple In the locality known Kalehbod2, there existed a big temple, which was demolished and on its ruins a Jamiía mosque was built. Around it stood a willow plantation. The trees, thick and tall, were felled and timber was brought to the city. Logs obtained from this timber were used as cross bars for the roof in the compound of Nurbakhshiyeh hospice. These long and big logs were used from inside the hospice stretching from one wall to another that stood outside in order that these could bear load. Since Shamsuíd-Din Araki had left the hospice without a pillar, it was felt necessary that strong logs of good length were used so that it bore the weight of the roof. Despite the heavy load that these logs bore, they did not show any sign of damage. Narvora temple A temple stood close to the spring in the village of Narvor Narwol (sic).3 Shamsuíd-Din Araki demolished it and built a mosque on its ruins. A mulla was appointed to take care of it and arrangement for calling for the prayer and offering five- times-a-day prayers was also made. Three to four kharwar land was given to the mosque by way of endowment. The land has been in the possession of the descendants of the mulla till this day."

"Vejnath Temple 1 There was a temple in the town of Vejehbrara (sic) (present day Bijbehara). Kashmiris called it Vejnath. It had no parallel in its beauty and artistic splendour. The top was capped with four rising pinnacles. When Sultan Sikandar the Iconoclast arrived at the said temple to undertake its demolition, he got the pinnacles removed without causing them any damage. These were placed on four well-known structures in the city. One was put atop the Jamiía Masjid, the second atop the hospice of Amir Sayyid ëAli Hamadani, the third on top of the cupola of Sultan Sikandarís (?) tomb, and the fourth atop the palace of Sultan Sikandar in Hairan Bazar (?). The aforesaid temple was rebuilt during the reign of Sultan Zainuíl-íAbidin. It was bestowed with the splendour of earlier days. Idolatry was revived and festivals of the infidels and their feasts were also revived as before. Shamsuíd-Din Araki came to that place in person and saw to the demolition of the temple. The foundations of the prayer house of the infidels were demolished, and its stones were brought to the city, where these were used to build the boundary wall of the Hamadaniyyeh hospice. A splendid mosque was raised in place of the temple. The task of raising the mosque had been entrusted to the father of this writer. Seven kharwars of land was allotted to the mosque and this was also given in the trusteeship of my father. He (my father) assigned the land among his brothers along with the duties of conducting prayers and religious discourses. These lands continue to be in the possession of the descendants of my uncles. Inn of Jogis There was one more temple in the town of Vejeh Belarah (Vijbror) called Prezyar in Kashmiri language. This too was razed to the ground and the customs and shrines of idolaters and polytheists were effaced from the surface of the earth for all times to come. Perzehyar Temple Another temple stood in the same locality (Vejehblareh/ Vejebror). In Kashmiri language it was called Perzehyara (?). It was also demolished and with that all traces of idol worshipping and polytheism and also the customs and shrines of the infidels were uprooted once for all."

"Kuther Temple. A temple stood in Kuther by the side of the spring. Araki dispatched a group of sufis to demolish it. Arrangements were made for five-times congregational prayers in that mosque. A mulla was appointed to look after these duties. Achhabal Temple An idol temple stood in the village of Achhabal1 by the side of the source of water. It was annihilated, and a mosque was raised at the site. One of the Sufis named Mulla Shankar was appointed Imam to lead congregational prayers and to be its muíezzin. Temples at Sagam and Lokeh (Bhavan?) Many temples stood in the villages of Sagam and Lokeh (Bhavan?) by the side of the springs and away from these. These were annihilated and mosques in their place built. Mullas were appointed to conduct prayers."

"Ver ( Verinag) village temple. Close to the spring in the village of Ver, there existed a big temple. This was also demolished and a mosque was raised in its place. Again, a mulla was appointed to conduct prayers, give call for the prayer and deliver sermons. After the demolition of this temple, bands of dervishes and sufis came to every place in the village and along the road where there were temples. They destroyed not only the temples of the infidels but also uprooted their customs and traditions. They wiped out all signs of idols and their remains so that the banner of Islamic religion and the shariía (law) began fluttering all over that region."

"The lands of this region were purified once for all from the traces of the polytheists and the infidels and their corrupt and debased customs. God Almighty be the witness. God blessed that venerable person (Shamsuíd-Din Araki) with strength and divine approval. That is why he succeeded in breaking the idols of the polytheists of this land and the prayer houses of the infidels. No Sultan, monarch or ruler in the world ever had such great success to his credit. This special felicity and bliss were not to be theirs. After a long time, of epochs and century, an outstanding personality appears to devote himself to the laws of the Prophet. Hazrat Amir Shamsuíd-Din took great pains in breaking idols and smashing statues. He succeeded in his mission. Islamic faith and the laws of religion were strengthened (in Kashmir). The number of idol houses (temples) of the infidels in this land was so large that one could not give a full account of them. My pen is helpless in counting each of these. I, therefore, pull up the reins of my pen at this point and leave the count and account of the demolition of temples by Araki at this point although one is unable to make the count. We now turn to the munificence and large- heartedness of Araki."

"It could not have been otherwise. Thus, the freshly-translated biography of 15th-century Shia Sufi preacher Shamsuddin Araki by one of his disciples sets apart a long chapter for detailing “Araki's mission of destroying idols and temples of infidels”. In outlying and thinly-populated Gilgit and Baltistan, his individual tally of destroyed temples already surpassed eighty, the figure now claimed as grand total of Islamic temple destructions in all of India over more than a thousand years. He also explicitated his justification for all this destruction, viz. Mohammed's own destruction of the 360 idols in the Kaaba, the central precedent for all Islamic iconoclasm including the many thousands of certified instances in India alone."

"Although ' was the most unnerving painting Picasso had done, Three Women... was more directly challenging to Matisse. ...The early version... that Matisse saw... encroached on territory Matisse had thought was his. The subject and style... owed much to Cézanne... The underlying subject... was also one that Matisse had been working with... in which process—the coming into being of things—was emphasized over stability. ...[I]ts outward-spiraling composition of three figures that seem to emerge from the bowels of the earth ...was a more resonant evocation of primal beginnings than had been Matisse's... Le Bonheur de vivre or Le Luxe... Three Women... contained a bold imbrication of the figures within their background—a motif Matisse had employed in his Fauve paintings, such as Woman in a Japanese Robe Beside the Sea... But whereas Matisse's merging... was based on... optical sensations, Picasso was developing a... symbolic language. ...also something Matisse had been involved with... especially in his... treatment of mythological themes. Picasso's Three Women seemed to combine references to a standard mythological theme... the Three Graces [previously classically painted by Botticelli, Raphael and Rubens], with a more generalized "birth of the world" imagery that went to the heart of the that had haunted both... along with... Derain, Vlaminck, and Braque... In response to Three Women, Matisse painted '..."

"In "Ma Jolie,"... the most concrete information about the woman comes largely through the two words "MA JOLIE," which refer to the refrain from a popular song. ...It is commonly said that a picture is worth a thousand words. But in this picture two words are reveal more than the entire image. ...In its hesitation at the limits of abstraction, the painting casts doubt on the whole enterprise of visual representation."

"Picasso was deeply impressed by Matisse's Goldfish and Pallete, and its emotional force and resonant use of black seem to have influenced his 1915 Harlequin... Harlequin is one of Picasso's first clear images of a divided personality. ...This evocation of multiple identities is given an added dimension by the rendering of... an unfinished canvas. ...Because this rectangle is rendered in a painterly way, it also suggests... the process of painting... a reminder of the impossibility of completeness, either in painting or in life. ...[W]hen Matisse saw Harlequin... he told the dealer that his goldfish had led to it, for in this painting Picasso had picked up precisely those aspects that Matisse had taken from him, such as the conflation of the figure with its surroundings, the suggestion of different psychological viewpoints, the fractured planarity, and... the situating of the picture in a space... somewhere between the thought and the seen, the internal and the external. In Harlequin, Picasso responds with his own version of multiple realities... the strong sense of process and... use of black... to evoke both light and darkness... as lessons from Matisse's painting."

"Artists of the previous generation, such as Cézanne and van Gogh, had employed systematic "distortions" in their works, but... as part of a... direct way of communicating the "truth" of his own personal vision. Picasso's contemporaries, including Matisse, followed in that tradition. Matisse's varied styles between 1905 and 1918 had grown out of his direct visual responses... and were not calculated to be artificial or arbitrary. Picasso, by contrast, insisted that there were many possible ways of arriving at the truth, and that all of them were equally artificial. ...the artist could choose among many different visual languages ...Each of these modes or styles ...being inherently expressive of attitudes that were implicitly contained within the style itself."

"Marie-Thérèse was... a natural or "primitive" version of the uninhibited and all-accepting woman the Surrealists were trying so hard to construct. ...Their relationship was rooted in a complex game of hiding and revealing, which soon spilled over into his art. Picasso's earliest representations of her were not paintings but geometric line drawings of musical instruments, done in pencil, in which he encodes cryptograms that use her initials: M-T. There is something charmingly adolescent about the gesture... The linear style of these works [line and charcoal drawings, plus The Dress Designer's Workshop and The Painter and His Model] is directly related to the notational systems Picasso was using in the studies for his illustrations for Balzac's Unknown Masterpiece—a story in which a seventeenth-century painter named Frenhof spends years working on what is supposed to be his masterpiece, and overworks it to such a degree that he finally produces an incomprehensible muddle."

"Picasso signed on for his own retrospective exhibition at the same gallery [Galerie Georges Petit], to open... 1932, exactly one year after the Matisse show... Picasso had been referring to Matisse's works for the past several years, playfully and often with more than a hint of mockery, but now he raised the stakes and produced several paintings that are usually characterized as his most "Matissian," with bright colors, sweeping arabesques, intense decorative patterning, and an extravagantly lyrical sensuality. These... are in a sense more "Matissian" than anything Matisse himself had previously done; in a curious way, they anticipate Matisse's late style several years before Matisse had formulated it."

"Matisse's response to Picasso's inventive reorganization of the human figure was concentrated in one of his most sublimely sensuous pictures of Lydia [Delectorskaya], the so-called Pink Nude... which was his variation on the pose of his 1907 Blue Nude. ...Returning to a practice he used with the Barnes murals, he photographed... while it was in progress... As with the murals, he also used pieces of cut paper to make quick modifications to the composition without having to wait for the paint to dry. ...[T]he painting began as a relatively naturalistic rendering... As the picture developed, Matisse radically altered not only the composition but its basic pictorial language... He also tried to augment the forcefulness of the figure by contorting it in a manner similar to Picasso's. ...But in the end, such an approach was not true to his vision, and he reverted..."

"[T]he trauma of the war forged a new solidarity between them. As the two most prominent artists in France, they came to stand for French culture, and even—in the face of barbarous fascism—for the values of civilization itself. (This was an ironic turnabout; before the war they were frequently accused of having introduced barbarism into modern art.) The probity of their personal comportment also stood in clear contrast to the shoddy behavior of a number of their colleagues, such as Vlaminck and Derain, who accepted invitations to go on propaganda trips to Nazi Germany."

"[A]fter Matisse's death... he became fixed on the idea of doing variations on the masters, and these became a subgenre within his work. His variations seem to be animated by a desire both to possess a work of the master and to measure himself against it. ...Picasso is again asking the same question about the greatness of his gifts that he had posed... when he and Matisse first met. ...as if he were again struggling against doubts about whether his election as a great artist was really strong enough to defeat death. (This was something Matisse never visibly questioned, at least in his work.) ...Picasso does seem to have been profoundly concerned about the possible death of his creative gift, and perhaps about its validity early on and the degree to which his work would survive him. For a Spanish artist, the pinnacle of comparison would be with Diego Velázquez ...His variations [see Las Meninas, 1957] on ' were an escape from the present, as well as an attempt to dominate the past and affirm his standing in the future."

"If Matisse's triumph was... to transcend death by bravely ignoring it, Picasso's triumph was to look death and decay straight in the face and not flinch. Though it was not possible to report back from that "undiscover'd country from whose bourn no traveler returns," at least he would send back images from the most distant frontiers that adjoined it."

"Matisse's works collectively give very little sense of a life long lived. ...Matisse's works give a vivid sense of a life lived as an artist, but not nearly the sense that Picasso gives of a life lived as a man. ...Matisse gives almost no sense of the political or economic history of the twentieth century, or of the demonic energies it unleashed... no sense that an artist might feel to take revenge upon the world. There is no equivalent of Picasso's Guernica... or to the death-haunted still lifes or harrowing political allegories, such as '. Nonetheless, Matisse's painting does provide a profound engagement with the spiritual uncertainties of the century, and a very personal response... in his inspired balance between observation, analysis, and the pure poetry of painting."

"Jack Flam explores the compelling, competitive, parallel lives of these two artists and their very different attitudes toward the idea of artistic greatness, toward the women they loved, and ultimately toward their confrontations with death."

"[T]heir tumultuous relationship is examined and brilliantly told."

"Timed to coincide roughly with the opening of the blockbuster Matisse-Picasso exhibition's third and final stop, at New York's MoMA... Flam is terrific. Flam locates... productive appropriations and reappropriations between the two painters over the years, so that anyone standing in line for the exhibition in Queens will profit..."

"Flam has given us a lucid and compelling study of these two geniuses, explaining what made them so good, and why part of the answer is: each other."

"The man to whom I have sent you is not your subordinate -- he will not accept orders from your hand! [...] If I do not make my 'Sage of the Assembly' feel just as important as I am, if he does not sit on a throne on a dais, furnished with a high-quality cloth cover, if his feet do not rest on a golden footstool, if he is not allowed by his own highest authority both to appoint and then to remove a governor from his function as governor, an official from his charge, if he does not kill or blind anyone, if he does not elevate his favourite over others -- how else can he secure the provinces? If you truly love me, you will not bear him a grudge!"

"As I myself ordered, you were to secure the provinces, and to correctly guide the people and make them obedient. [...] That was how I had instructed you. Why have you not acted as I ordered you?"

"Let my roar be emitted over all the lands. Let my powerful arm, my heroic arm, fall upon all the lands. Let my storm cover the Land."

"You are important, but you do not even know your own soldiers. Your eyes have learnt something about these men, and about Apillaca's heroism. If you, Aradju, are indeed my servant, you should both pay attention to my written communications. Come to an understanding, you two! Secure the foundations of the provinces! It is urgent!"

"My lord, you have given me instructions about every matter, from the waters of the sea and the land of , from the salt waters and the borders of the land of the Martu, to the side of . [...] Their various cities and all their environs, their canals, fields, arable tracts and their embankments and ditches. [...] All the cities are listening to my lord. [...] I have established strong guards for their fortresses, and I have made all their troops submit."

"My lord, the vast territory which has been given to you as booty has been made obedient: it is of one mind. The people, abundant as vegetation, belong to Culgi, shepherd of the reliable word. You are the god of mankind, in the south and the highlands. They keep their gaze fixed on you. The widespread people, abundant as vegetation, say: "Hail, my lord!", from the flooding Tigris and Euphrates."

"The citizens of the territory of Gutium, [..] Mari and , who will listen at all times, are before me. Whatever you say, my lord, I will do."

"My lord, your word is the word of An, [...] Your decreed destiny has been bestowed on you as on a god."

"My lord continues to maintain his sublime reputation in the south and the uplands, from the rising to the setting sun, as far as the borders of the entire Land."

"I have not neglected the instructions of my lord Culgi: both at night and in the noonday heat."

"A man such as he knows my heart, as your eyes know. My lord, with the open eye of a god."

"Your matter is an important matter, and your affairs are great affairs."

"How could I bear a grudge? I am securing the foundations of the province, and making it obedient. My lord, no king can rival you; let your heart be glad!"

"Say to my lord: this is what Puzur-Culgi, the commander of the fortress Igi-hursaja, your servant, says: All the gold and silver that my lord has been fashioning for the gods -- is it not for his own life? For the life of the troops and his land, my king has built the great fortress Igi-hursaja for the people of his land, because of the wicked enemy. [...] May it be known that, by night or by day the enemy's sins are forever grave. I am the loyal servant of my lord Culgi. Let this not be the death of me! May my lord know!"

"When the master-builder has taken up the work concerned, he is to re-establish securely any place where the fortification has fallen into ruins. Let him reinforce and also rebuild it."

"The orders are rigorous: you should not neglect your work load. They are to proceed with the building work by night and in the heat of noon. You will not be sleeping during the night or in the heat of noon!"

"[O]ver all the foreign lands and the widespread people, each of their towns and all their provinces, and the people of the widespread Land lay in green meadows. I made them rest in spacious habitations, in peaceful dwelling places. As for their men and women: the man among them goes wherever he pleases, and the woman with spindle and hair clasp goes wherever she pleases. After they had set up stock-pens in the vastness of the desert, and established their tents and camps, the workmen and the labourers spend the days in the fields."

"In order that the ruler and the general manager can build everything for you concerning the fortress, carry out this work on the fortress now. The reputation of this fortress shall not be diminished."

"By consulting omens and according to my heart's desire I have benefitted the life of the troops and the province."

"You have made me so happy with the news and everything. Who could give me a house-born slave such as you are? Who has such a capable man, so beneficial to his lord? [...] From today, you are my son who makes me happy. The cities of the province, the land of the Martu, Elam -- all of them I have placed before you: you are just as important as I am. So sit before them on a throne on a golden dais! [...] Let their messengers prostrate themselves in front of you! [...] Remove a governor -- appoint a governor! Appoint a commander! Designate a captain-general! Certainly you should put a man to death, a man who has killed: blind the man who has killed! Build your house of manhood for an attendant who has been favourably looked upon! Make sure your recompense is great! Now, you should not suddenly alter your word about all that I have been sending to you."

"I stand at the disposal of the fame and word of my lord. [...] Let the storm cover all the lands! May my lord know!"

"That was how I instructed you. Why did you not act as I ordered you? You were not empowered to kill anyone, to blind people or to destroy cities; but I gave you authority to do so."

"My throne is not the throne of Culgi!"

"Concerning Lu-Enki, the ruler of the province of Zimudar, he should come to you, and should bring with him 60 troops. And as for you, with the soldiers who are under your authority, get the trench dug! So as not to change the attitude of the province, you people are not to release the workers while the land has not yet been secured. Let messengers bring me news about those eastern provinces. This is urgent!"

"I heard news that the hostile Martu have entered inside your territories. [...] They are stronger than me, while I am condemned to sitting around."

"The place there where the boats moor will be under my responsibility."

"If you have not got enough grain, I myself shall have grain brought in to you. My lord has become distressed about the battles in Elam. But the Elamites' grain rations have quickly been exhausted, so do not slacken your forces! Do not fall head first into their slavery, nor follow at their heels!"

"That I should guard for you , and Nibru: let it be my responsibility. My lord should know this!"

"My lord, I am without fear!"

"Urim, your , rivalling heaven and earth, whose great prince you are, [...] which dispenses the divine powers and makes the foundations and the plans firm both in the south and in the uplands, will surely escape from the grasp."

"Elam, a raging dog, a destroyer, will not defile E-kic-nu-jal, the sanctuary which covers heaven and earth. [...] Its protective spirits shall not be split apart!"

"My lord: the loudest roarer."

"May An, Enlil and Enki, who have loved Ibbi-Suen from the womb, look upon him approvingly."

"Your heart should not fret over this. [...] Let your heart be glad over."

"As long as my lord is alive, he will exercise kingship over Urim."

"Before Utu, I will not change my word."

"Say to Icbi-Erra: this is what your lord, Ibbi-Suen, says: As long as Enlil was my lord, what course were you following? And is this how you alter your word? Today Enlil detests me, he detests his son Suen (the principal deity of Urim), and is handing Urim over to the enemy. Its central part is gone, the enemy has risen up, and all the lands are thrown into disarray. But on the day when Enlil turns again towards his son Suen, you and your word will be marked out!"

"How could you allow Puzur-Numucda, the commander of the fortress Igi-hursaja, to let the hostile Martu penetrate into my Land? Until now he has not sent to you word about engaging in battle. There are puny men in the Land! Why has he not faced the Martu?"

"Say to Puzur-Culgi, the governor of : this is what Ibbi-Suen, your lord, says: [...] [A]s in my own case, are not your troops proof of your importance? Why have you sent me somebody saying: "Icbi-Erra has got his eyes upon me -- so let me come to you when he falls upon me"? [...] How come you did not know how long it would take to make Icbi-Erra return to the mountain lands? Why have you and Girbubu, the governor of Jirikal, not confronted him with the troops which you had at hand? Today Enlil loathes Sumer and has elevated to the shepherdship of the Land an ape which has descended from those mountain lands. Now Enlil has given kingship to an idiot, a seller of -- to Icbi-Erra, who is not of Sumerian origin."

"See, the assembly where the gods are and Sumer itself have been dispersed! Father Enlil, whose words prevail, said: "Until the enemy has been expelled from Urim, Icbi-Erra, the man from Mari, will tear out Urim's foundations. He will indeed measure out Sumer like grain." He has spoken just so."

"The others will defect to Icbi-Erra, in accordance with Enlil's word. Should you hand over your city to the enemy like your companions, Icbi-Erra will not recognise you as his faithful and agreeable servant? May it now be brought about that good words should be restored and treason extinguished. Let Icbi-Erra participate in the harvest among the people there; but you yourself, do not turn back, and do not come to me! His grasp should not get hold of the city! This man from Mari, with the understanding of a dog, should not exercise lordship!"

"Now Enlil, my helper, has made the Martu rise from their mountain lands. They will repel Elam and seize Icbi-Erra. To regain the Land will indeed make our might known in all the foreign lands."

"Mardana! this Ayodhya city belongs to Sri Ramachandra Ji. So let us go for his darshan [visit with God]."

"I have seen the light of Muhammad (with my mind's eye). I have seen the prophet and the messenger of God, in other words, I have understood his message or imbibed his spirit. After contemplating the glory of God, my ego was completely eliminated."

"It claimed to be an eye-witness account which it was not. Bhai Balas name does not appear in any of the other Janamsakhis."

"Compared to the Vilayatwali text, its language is of much later period."

"The later tradition which pretends to have knowledge of all the details of life of Nanak was therefore compelled to put forth as Voucher for its sundry tales and stories, Bhai Bala, who is said to have been the constant companion of Nanak, from his youth days up, whereas our old Janamsakhi does not even once name Bhai Bala. If Bhai Bala had been a constant companion of Nanak and a sort of mentor to him, as he appears now in the current Janamsakhi, it would be quite incomprehensive why never a single allusion should have been made of him in old tradition. “"

"There are two sakhis preceding this, a close study of which along with the aforesaid five brings out clearly the real motive of the author for writing this Janamsakhi. The motive evidently was to degrade Guru Nanak in comparison with Baba Hindal. Apparently, the author is a follower of Baba Hindal."

"The Scripture of the Saviour of the World,"

"Below the highest sphere four Regents sit"

"That night the wife of King Suddhodana,"

"The strong hills shook; the waves"

""The dead that are to live, the live who die,"

"The Queen shall bear a boy, a holy child"

"With coral shields: the Angel of the North,"

"The King gave order that his town should keep"

"'Mongst the strangers came"

"...Thou wilt preach the Law and save all flesh"

"Dear to all gods and men for this great birth,"

""Who is the wisest man, great sirs," he asked,"

"And, on a day found fortunate, the Prince"

""Acharya, I write," ...replied"

"Now, when our Lord was come to eighteen years,"

"Delicious gardens round about them bloomed,"

"Which the King marking, called his Ministers:"

"Like everything the British poet Edwin Arnold wrote, The Light of Asia was quickly written: a poem in eight books of about five hundred lines each, mostly in blank verse, composed over a period of several months when Arnold was busy with other concerns. Immediately upon its publication in the summer of 1879, the poem began to sell copies and win attention. It was a life of Siddhartha Gautama, told from the point of view of “an Indian Buddhist” (so read the title page) in high English style. The immediate sensation surrounding The Light of Asia was remarkable: for some time on both sides of the Atlantic, newspapers and dining rooms were charged with discussion about the Buddha, his teaching, and Arnold’s presentation of Buddhism. The book’s success was also sustained. By 1885 the authorized English version had gone through thirty editions. Pirated editions, which went for as little as three cents in the U.S., make a count of the book’s circulation impossible, but it has been estimated at a million copies (not far short of Huckleberry Finn). After thirty years it had become one of the undisputed bestsellers of Victorian England and America, had been translated into a number of languages (German, Dutch, French, Czech, Italian, Swedish, Esperanto), and had inspired a stage version and even an opera."

"Arnold’s great project was a blank verse poem based loosely on the Lalitavistara Sutra. It ran for forty-one thousand words and was composed in eight volumes and published in 1879 as the Light of Asia: the Great Renunciation. The Light of Asia was an instant success and would capture the English speaking imagination. It would be reprinted numerous times in England and the United States. The best estimate I could find was sixty editions in England and another eighty in the US. The Light has also been translated into many languages, including Hindi. But, most importantly, it is generally credited as the first book to bring the life and teachings of Gautama Siddhartha broadly to the attention of the English speaking public."

"During the enforced leisure of a long illness, I commenced, in 1842, to collect materials for a projected work on the lives of the Chemists of Great Britain, in which Cavendish should occupy a prominent place; and I had made some progress in my task when the Cavendish Society was founded."

"When... at the call of the Society, I... turned my attention solely to the works and character of the Honourable Henry Cavendish, circumstances had occurred which gave him an importance in the eyes of the lettered public, such as no other chemist at the time possessed. He prosecuted zealously and successfully so many branches of knowledge, that the students of nearly all the physical sciences may consider him as an illustrious brother..."

"[H]is memory has been specially honoured by chemists, among whom Sir Humphry Davy, Faraday, and Thomas Thomson have been foremost."

"I have written this volume as a student of chemistry... I have dwelt less upon Cavendish's purely physical researches, than I should have done had I been free to expatiate upon his merits as a natural philosopher. His physical researches, however, especially those on electricity and on the density of the earth, have not been overlooked in the succeeding pages; and the value of these memoirs is... fully appreciated by men of science..."

"I have given prominence, accordingly, to his discoveries in chemistry, and in the science of heat, but especially to the former. It has been impossible to do otherwise. ...Cavendish has been the occasion of the keenest controversy that has interested chemists for a long time, and much of this volume is occupied with... Who discovered the composition of water,—Cavendish, Watt, or Lavoisier?"

"[C]harges of plagiarism, and of unfair dealing towards each other, have been brought against the rivals, nor have their friends and acquaintances escaped reproach, including the entire ..."

"I have undertaken... a delicate and difficult task, in writing a work which compels me to pass under review the judgments of men of such note in science and letters as Arago, Dumas, Brougham, Brewster, Jeffrey, Harcourt, Whewell, and Peacock, at whose feet I have been accustomed to sit as a humble disciple."

"The reputation of Lavoisier, and of Watt, is as sacred a thing in my eyes as that of Cavendish; and I should be the first to regret if the tone of this work should seem at variance with the catholic spirit of esteem for all great philosophers..."

"Whilst... I have endeavoured to be impartial, and to make the biography a faithful sketch, not a eulogy, I have deemed it an essential part of my duty as a biographer to vindicate the moral character of Cavendish from even the shadow of suspicion. It has been impossible to do this, without censuring those who have called his good name in question."

"If in uttering censure I have forgotten what is due to great authorities in literature and in science, even when they are in error, I shall deserve and bow to reproof; but if I have only reluctantly fulfilled an imperative though invidious duty, and have justified my censures by showing that they are deserved, I shall hope to be vindicated at the hands of my readers."

"In 1845, Mr. Muirhead, the able editor of "the Correspondence of the late James Watt on his discovery of the theory of the Composition of Water,"... and by that gentleman, the most zealous of Watt's defenders, and the most unhesitating of Cavendish's assailants, I had everything that could be said in favour of Watt urged upon me in the strongest terms."

"The publication, also, of the Watt Correspondence in 1846, led to my obtaining the friendship of the late lamented Lord Jeffrey. He had known and esteemed Watt, and he welcomed the publication of the Watt Correspondence, as furnishing a becoming occasion for exalting the honour of his old friend."

"Before his Lordship published his judgment on the rival claims of Cavendish and Watt in the ' for 1848, I had many conversations with him... Chemistry was a science in which he had always taken great interest... With his estimate of the relative merits of Cavendish and Watt I could not concur, and he listened to my earnest defence... with all the frank courtesy and love of fair dealing which so eminently characterized him."

"Against Cavendish he entertained no animosity or prejudice, and he was most willing to praise him; but he thought that Watt had been wronged... so that he pressed me with all the arguments which... might be urged in favour of his great client... and I defended Cavendish in the strongest terms which courtesy sanctioned."

"My zeal in Cavendish's cause made no difference in Lord Jeffrey's kindly dealings towards me, and he was the first in whose hands I purposed to place this volume, in which many of his conclusions are called in question."

"After Lord Jeffrey's decease, the Rev. William Vernon Harcourt, the ablest of Cavendish's defenders... furnished me with his estimate of the position in which Cavendish's claims were placed by the publications in favour of Watt... since 1846. ...I owe to him an introduction to the Earl of Burlington, who placed at my disposal the whole of Cavendish's papers in his possession, and obtained for me much information concerning his illustrious ancestor's personal history."

"The papers on Electricity which Cavendish left behind him, are at present in the hands of that accomplished Electrician, Sir W. Snow Harris, who, in the kindest manner, drew up for me an abstract of them, accompanied by a commentary."

"I have thus had access to many unpublished documents, which are fitted to throw light on Cavendish's merits and his personality..."

"[T]he Rev. Dr. Vaughan, of , has permitted me to make any use I pleased of papers contributed to the ', in which I published, in 1845, a short biographical sketch of Cavendish."

"[S]ince the publication of the Watt Correspondence, in 1846, the only lengthened notices... in reference to Cavendish, have been Sir David Brewster's Article in the ' for 1847, and Lord Jeffrey's Paper in the ' for 1848. Both of these writers pronounce against Cavendish, and refer to the Watt Correspondence as decisive of the merits of Watt; but... from the following pages... the admirers of Cavendish have every reason to congratulate themselves on the publication of the "Correspondence;"... for... it furnishes the most decisive evidence in favour of Cavendish, and as such I have constantly quoted from it."

"He was an excellent mathematician, electrician, astronomer, meteorologist, and geologist, and a chemist equally learned and original. In the fullest sense of the term, indeed, he was a natural philosopher, and had he published during his lifetime all the researches which he completed, his reputation would have been much wider and more varied even than it was."

"Cavendish... dealt with his discoveries as with his great wealth, and allowed the larger part of them to lie unused in his repositories."

"His published papers, accordingly, give but an imperfect notion of the great extent of ground over which he travelled in the course of his investigations, and of the success with which he explored it."

"[A]s chemistry is concerned, Mr. Harcourt has left little to be done in this matter by his analyses of the Cavendish MSS."

"[H]e could, with the greatest ease, change his subject of study, and that he was in the constant practice of carrying on together, widely dissimilar enquiries."

"Cavendish's life is so barren of incident, that with the solitary exception of the Controversy concerning the discovery of the composition of Water, almost no connexion can be traced between the events of his history and the researches which he prosecuted."

"Cavendish did not give to the world his earliest researches. He probably kept many back. Two lengthened investigations, at least, the one chemical, the other physical, were completed and laid aside, in a condition ready for publication, before he commenced contributing to the Transactions of the Royal Society of London, in which all his papers were published."

"Experiments on Arsenic... experiments... are as early... as 1764... [T]he paper... contains an elaborate enquiry into the differences between regulus of Arsenic (Metallic ), white Arsenic (Arsenious Acid, AsO3), and Arsenical Acid (Arsenic Acid, AsO5). The properties... are described with no little accuracy. ...Cavendish ...held arsenic acid to be "more thoroughly deprived of its phlogiston" than arsenious acid; and the latter to bear a similar relation to metallic arsenic. ...[Equivalently] arsenic acid contains more oxygen than arsenious acid, and the latter more than metallic arsenic, which we know to be the case. The paper, is otherwise remarkable for its speculations on the nature of the "red fumes," (, produced by the action of the air on ) which attended the action of nitric acid on arsenious acid, and for its discussion of the theory of the solution of metals in acids, and the reduction of the former by heat and inflammable matter."

"Cavendish engaged in an extensive series of Experiments on Heat... [W]e must go back... into 1764, for the commencement of the researches... They were written out for a friend... but were not publicly referred to till some nineteen years after... when certain of the results were quoted in a paper published in 1783, on the Congelation of Quicksilver."

"[H]ad [these researches] been made public in 1764 or 1765, they would have given Cavendish chronological precedence to Black in some of his discoveries, and equality of merit in others. They would have entitled him... to rank above Black's pupils and imitators... as Irvine, Crawford, and Wilcke."

"Cavendish discovered for himself, and announced with admirable clearness, the fundamental laws of specific heat; and collected, probably before any one else, tables of the specific heats of various bodies."

"With scarcely any knowledge... of what Black had done towards the exposition of the laws of Latent Heat, and guiding himself by a totally different theory, as to its relation to solidity and liquidity, Cavendish investigated... the evolution of heat which attends the solidification of Liquids, and the condensation of Gases or Vapours, and the converse "generation of Cold," as he styled it, which accompanies the liquefaction of Solids and the Vaporisation of Liquids."

"Cavendish's earliest public contribution to science was... his paper on Factitious Airs, published in the Transactions of the Royal Society for 1766. It consisted of three parts: a fourth, which was not published, remains in a state of perfect completion, ready for the press, among his papers. It was evidently intended to be read to the Royal Society, for it contains a reference to the "Former Experiments read to this Society." ...since ...published by the Rev. W. V. Harcourt."

"Those four papers... are occupied with the discussion of the properties of , , and the gases evolved during the , putrefaction, and of vegetable and animal matters. They contain the first distinct exposition of the properties of hydrogen, and the first full account of those of carbonic acid, besides investigations into the combining proportion of the latter, and the properties of s. They recount also the first successful attempt to determine the differences in which characterise the gases, and suggest the probability of there being more kinds than one of inflammable air."

"A paper which was published by Cavendish in the Philosophical Transactions for 1767, may be considered as an extension of the research into the properties of . It is occupied with an account of the Analysis of one of the London pump waters (... of ), which was remarkable for the quantity of calcareous earth which it deposited when boiled."

"Cavendish showed that the earth was originally retained in solution by carbonic acid, which the boiling dissipated, so as to allow the earth to precipitate. The other constituents of the water were determined also, and the whole research is curious as one of the earliest tolerably successful attempts to analyse a natural water."

"Abstracts of [the above] papers are given in the sequel... I refer to them... as showing the prominent position which Cavendish took... as a discoverer in chemistry."

"He may be counted the third in order of time among the four great English pneumatic chemists of the eighteenth century, the other three being Hales, Black, and Priestley."

"Hales was the earliest enquirer into the properties of elastic fluids, and, without injustice to his illustrious predecessors, the immediate disciples of Bacon, and early contemporaries of Newton, who had made some progress in investigating the properties of the gases, he may be called the father of in England."

"His great merit was to point out that elastic fluids may be obtained from an immense variety of organic and inorganic substances, of which they are as important constituents as the solids or liquids which may be separated from them."

"Hales did not recognise, unless very imperfectly, that those elastic fluids were chemically unlike, and specifically distinct, so that he spoke of them as if essentially identical with each other and with the atmosphere; and had no other name for them than simply air. His writings belong to the first third of the preceding century."

"Black, appeared a little after the middle of the century, and by his celebrated essay on Magnesia Alba, demonstrated that there existed at least one gas totally distinct from the atmosphere, and able by its addition to bodies, or its removal from them, to alter immensely their physical and chemical properties."

"Black thus rose to a higher discovery than that reached by Hales. The latter had shown that the most solid stone might owe half or more of its weight to the presence of an imprisoned or solidified air; but he had paid little or no attention to the effect which the removal of this air had in altering the chemical properties of the substance from which it had been extracted."

"Black demonstrated that the fixed or solidified air did not merely increase the bulk and weight of the solid, but determined in a most striking manner its chemical properties, so that a substance which, when saturated with a peculiar air, was a bland, innocuous insoluble powder, or crystalline solid, became by the expulsion of this air soluble, caustic, and corrosive; and the difference between or on the one hand, and quicklime on the other, was shown to be entirely dependent on the presence or absence of the gas, which Black named fixed air, and we name '."

"Twelve years after the publication of Black's paper, namely in 1766, Cavendish published the first of the essays we have been considering. He took up the investigation of fixed air where Black and his pupils had left it, and examined in particular its properties when free, on which Black had published scarcely anything."

"Thus far Cavendish appears rather as the follower of Black than as an independent observer, although... his investigation of the properties of free was equally original and accurate. He struck out, however... a new path... and added to the solitary fixed air, a second gas equally distinct from it and from atmospheric air in properties. This was , of which Cavendish cannot be called the discoverer, for many of his predecessors, Boyle among others, had encountered it; but no chemist had carefully examined its properties, or at least had described them."

"His predecessors... knew only as much about the gas as a navigator who merely touches at a strange island, knows of its geography and various products, to whom we cannot deny the merit of being its discoverer, although we often assign much more credit to some later visitor who surveys and describes the new territory."

"The mere discovery of was no great feat; for the most random experimenter, who, with or without purpose, handled the more powerful reagents, was likely to encounter a phenomenon of which the conditions are so simple as the evolution of hydrogen from the contact of and an ; and the ready and explosive of the gas when it meets flame could not fail to attract the attention of the most heedless observer."

"[A]mong Cavendish's predecessors backwards through several centuries, there were many who could assert equally good claims to be called the discoverers of hydrogen, of which, nevertheless, they knew exceedingly little. Cavendish did not claim to be one of them, but he could claim a merit which was much greater."

"Boyle, Mayow, and Brownrigg had preceded him in showing how gases may be collected, but no one had given an example of the mode of examining them."

"Cavendish's examination, accordingly, of the properties of and , has all the interest that attaches to the first demonstration of a method of pursuing a novel investigation. It is easy to look back from our thoroughly appointed laboratories, filled with the apparatus which some ninety years have added to the chemist's instruments... and to criticise and depreciate the methods and results it records; and this has been done largely and unreasonably."

"[I]f we consider how much more genius is requisite for the devising of an apparatus or method of research which is quite new than is needed for its indefinite extension and improvement, and if we further judge the experimenter of 1766, not by his successors of 1840 or 1850, but by his contemporaries, we shall not hesitate to assign a very high rank to Cavendish, as one of the earliest investigators of the chemical properties of the gases."

"We find him... collecting the elastic fluids on which he experimented, with various precautions to secure their purity, observing carefully from how many different sources they could be procured with identical properties, and determining with numerical precision the relative volumes yielded by different processes. The questions of their permanent elasticity, their in different liquids, their combustibility or power to support combustion, their specific gravity, and likewise their combining equivalent, were all carefully enquired into."

"The apparatus employed, though deficient in delicacy according to modern standards, was unexceptionable in principle, and wherever... possible, was made to yield quantitative results, so that this earliest analyst of the gases introduced the principle of rendering all descriptions of phenomena as precise as possible, and endeavoured... to attach a numerical value to each. We... have done little more in later times than extend, improve, and... perfect Cavendish's processes for the analysis of gases, and that we differ from him more in our mode of interpreting certain of the phenomena... than we do in our methods..."

"[H]e mistook... the source of the ... procured... from the solution of , , and , in sulphuric and muriatic acids, and referred it to the metals in which he supposed it to exist in a peculiar state of combination."

"Water at this time... was supposed to be an element, and the composition of all the acids was unknown. No gas had been certainly traced to a liquid as its source, otherwise than as dissolved in it like in a ; whilst Hales and Black had shown that the most fixed and solid bodies might yield from their very substance large volumes of elastic fluid."

"[T]his may have been one reason which induced Cavendish to suppose that the came out of the rather than out of the . ...[T]he belief common to him with the majority of his contemporaries, [was] that the metals contained a peculiar combustible principle named phlogiston. This Cavendish supposed to abandon the metal, and, assuming the form of an elastic fluid, to show itself as the inflammable air."

"was... the first of the combustible gases examined, and for many years... great confusion existed in the mind of chemists as to the number and nature of the different inflammable elastic fluids; nor did this begin to cease till the composition of water and of was ascertained."

"Cavendish... had clearer views on this... than most of his fellow chemists. He ascertained that vegetable and animal matters, by putrefaction and , yielded inflammable air. He was not aware of its exact nature, but he satisfied himself by the test of specific gravity, and the volume of common air required for its combustion, that it was not identical with Hydrogen, which accordingly he distinguished as the "inflammable air from metals." He further observed that "the nature of the inflammable air was not quite the same" from animal as from vegetable substances. [H]e turned these observations to excellent account in the researches which led him to the discovery of the composition of water."

"Between the years 1767 and 1783, Cavendish did not appear before the public as an author on any subject directly connected with chemistry, but... he continued to prosecute chemical enquiries."

"Among his papers is one on which he himself has written, "communicated to Dr. Priestley," the contents of which are referred to by the latter in his account of Experiments and Observations made in and before the year 1772... The paper... has been printed by Mr. Harcourt, and is... one of the earliest distinct accounts of . Cavendish prepared it by passing atmospheric air repeatedly through red hot , and removing the produced, by caustic potash."

"He gives the following description of it: "The specific gravity of this air was found to differ very little from that of common air; of the two, it seemed rather lighter. It extinguished flame, and rendered common air unfit for making bodies burn in the same manner as fixed air, but in a less degree, as a candle which burnt about 80” in pure common air, and which went out immediately in common air mixed with 6/55 of fixed air, burnt about 26” in common air mixed with the same portion of this burnt air.""

"Cavendish gave no special name to nitrogen, which he referred to generally as mephitic air. It was afterwards minutely described by Lavoisier and Scheele, and was distinguished by Priestley and his contemporaries, by the name phlogisticated air."

"The quotation adduced above, shows incontestably that Cavendish discovered for himself, and had ascertained with great precision its chief properties; but in the absence of precise dates, I hesitate to adopt Mr. Harcourt's conclusions, that the paper from which I have quoted contains "the first clear description of nitrogen as a distinct gas.""

"Dr. Rutherford, of Edinburgh, the reputed discoverer of , published his Thesis De Aere Mephitico, in 1772. His process for procuring the gas, for which he had the same general term as Cavendish, viz., mephitic air, resembled that of the latter chemist, except that he employed atmospheric air vitiated by respiration, not by combustion. This he passed through caustic potash, and tested by lime-water, which it did not precipitate, whilst it possessed the power of extinguishing life and flame."

"The dates of publication, or announcement, of Cavendish and Rutherford's observations, are thus the same, whilst the dates of their experiments are uncertain. We cannot in these circumstances give precedence to the former, but it is certain that he was an independent discoverer of ."

"In 1771 he published the elaborate paper on the theory of the principle phenomena of electricity, which appears in the Philosophical Transactions for that year. In 1776 appeared... his Attempts to imitate the effects of the Torpedo. ...[T]he singular power which the torpedo possesses, of benumbing those that touch it, had been referred with great ingenuity and force of argument, by Walsh and others, to its possessing the means of discharging electricity at will. Cavendish... tried whether he could not successfully imitate the effects of the living fish, by a piece of apparatus constructed in imitation of it, and placed in connection with a friction electrical machine and a Leyden battery. He succeeded... all doubts as to the identity of the torpedinal benumbing power, with common electricity, were removed."

"Faraday, among others, have borne testimony to the light which was thrown upon every department of electrical enquiry, by Cavendish's demonstration... Faraday found the theory which Cavendish suggested, sufficient to explain the curious and apparently contradictory voltaic phenomena which he observed so late as 1833. ...In none of his essays does Cavendish appear to greater advantage than in this."

"[T]he Royal Society... selected... [Cavendish] in 1776 to describe the meteorological instruments which were made use of... The Society had commenced in 1773 recording their observations with the thermometer, barometer, rain-guage, , variation-compass, and dipping needle, and Cavendish was applied to, to give an account of these. His father, , had devoted himself to , and had paid special attention to the improvement of the thermometer and barometer... That [Henry] had paid great attention... to the thermometer... is certain from his unpublished papers on heat of 1764 and 1765... The most important part of this paper is his description of the best method of accurately graduating thermometers... found specially referred to in the abstract of his papers on Heat."

"1777 or perhaps... 1778, marks the period when he commenced his most important chemical researches... Experiments on Air... carried on with frequent, and sometimes long interruptions till 1788, and no part... was published till 1783. They led to the discovery of the constant quantitative composition of the atmosphere, the compound nature of water, and the composition of ."

"In 1783... Cavendish published his first paper on heat, embodying some of the results he obtained in 1764 in reference to the freezing or solidifying point of liquids. [T]he papers on heat... are three... 1783, 1786, and 1788. All of them refer to ; the first to that of quicksilver, the second and third to... mineral acids and... alcohol [respectively]. ...They are all... commentaries upon observations made in North America by officers of the Hudson Bay Company on the effect of great natural cold, assisted by powerful freezing mixtures in congealing mercury, , oil of vitriol, and spirits of wine. These observations were made under Cavendish's directions, and at his cost..."

"The most important of these papers was that on the freezing of quicksilver. This metal... was frozen in a thermometer in 1759... by Professor Braun, of Petersburgh, who observed that its congelation was accompanied by a descent of the mercury, through many hundred degrees, and came to the conclusion that the freezing point of the metal was some 300° or 400° below Farhenheit's zero, but was unable to determine the exact point of congelation."

"Braun confounded two phenomena. The one of these was the contraction which accompanies the cooling of liquid mercury; the other the further contraction which attends its solidification. The contraction due to both these causes [was] exaggerated by the peculiarities which attend the freezing of mercury in capillary tubes... To his conclusion the majority of the natural philosophers of Europe assented, but... Cavendish and Black... by independent researches, suggested the same way of ascertaining the true freezing point of mercury... This method... was put in practice by Governor Hutchins at Albany Fort, Hudson Bay... The result was, that the freezing point of mercury is not more than 39° or 40° below Fahrenheit's zero... Mr. Hutchins's observations were not made till 1782, but the directions by which he was guided had been laid down by Cavendish in 1764 and 1765."

"The experiments on air... supplied materials for four papers, besides leading to the observation of many phenomena which were never made public. ...In the interval which elapsed between the publication of Cavendish's first chemical papers and [these]... Priestley, the fourth of the great English pneumatic chemists, had appeared... while Scheele... and Lavoisier... besides other less distinguished observers had effected the discovery of nearly all the gases known to... the present... and their study engrossed the attention of every chemist."

"[T]he relation of the atmosphere to combustion demanded explanation, and the nature of the change which the air underwent when inflammables, burned within confined portions of it, deprived it of the power of further supporting combustion. At this problem all the active chemists of Europe were now working, but with very unequal success, owing to the false theory of combustion which the majority espoused, and the erroneous opinions which were current concerning the constitution of atmospheric air."

"Boyle, Hooke and Mayow in England, and Rey in France, besides other early disciples of the school of Bacon, understood the true nature of combustion in air much better than the immediate predecessors of Lavoisier. The former held as we do, that a burning body is literally fed by the air, and they apprehended with considerable clearness, that burning combustibles add something to themselves from the atmosphere. Some of these observers were also well aware that combustibles are converted by combustion into substances possessing greater weight than the original inflammable."

"In an evil day... Beccher and Stahl, two men of unquestionable genius, devised a theory of combustion which led all chemistry astray for half a century. According to their view combustion consisted in the emission from the combustible of a peculiar fiery principle, to which the name phlogiston was given. It was present in all inflammables, however different their appearance and properties. When they burned, it passed out of them into the air which surrounded them, and by its loss they became changed in character and quite incombustible; but if phlogiston was restored to them, they recovered their original appearance and properties, among the rest, their combustibility."

"Much has been said by the historians of chemistry in praise of this theory as having served, in spite of its inaccuracy, to guide chemistry to great results, at a time when the science was not ripe for a juster theory. From this statement I must totally dissent. Its devisers assuredly were men of rare gifts, and their theory, welcomed by their fellows and immediate successors as a great boon to the science, exerted for some forty or fifty years a strange fascination over all the chemists of Europe. These forty years, however, were like those spent by the Israelites in the wilderness, after their glimpse of the Promised Land."

"Had Stahl and Beccher carried out the conclusions which the early disciples of Bacon had imperfectly announced, we should not have waited till the close of the eighteenth century, and the advent of Lavoisier, for the true interpretation of the nature of combustion. A Joshua would have been found some half a century sooner, and the goodly land which the chemists cultivate, would exhibit a much wider extent of fertile territory than it does at the present day."

"[N]o service can be rendered to the cause of truth by affecting to deny that, especially in the early history of the sciences, we find long periods of total stagnation, and the tide even ebbing, when by our calculations it should have overflowed."

"Stahl's theory of phlogiston was not a refined speculation. It scarcely deserves to be called a scientific hypothesis. It really amounted to nothing more than the assertion, that a body was combustible because it contained something combustible; which was equivalent to the identical proposition that a body burned because it burned. This declaration instead of being a refinement of philosophy, to which only a man of science could reach, was but the reduction to terms, of a vulgar belief. It was a poetical, rather than a scientific thought; for the natural tendency of every untrained imaginative mind, as we see in children, and in the early history of all nations, is to impute every manifestation of power, to the presence in the body manifesting it, of some inner principle more or less self-sustaining, and resembling a living or vital agent."

"The same spirit, which made the Greeks people the winds and the waves, the rivers and the trees, with gods; which makes the savage regard the compass needle as animated; and the child demand to see in some visible shape, the motive principle of a watch or moving toy; led the Chemists of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to declare that a candle burned because it contained a burning principle."

"I have sometimes thought that this theory was in part occasioned by the spectacle of the sun and other heavenly bodies unceasingly emitting heat and light. I have found, however, no reference to this striking phenomenon in the writings of the phlogistians; and however much the unbroken radiance of the sun might justify a popular belief in the power of combustibles simply to emit light, it could never justify the assertion of this even as a probable truth, for this would have been to explain one mystery by another."

"Whilst poetry might have welcomed the doctrine that a blazing body throws off light and heat, as a bell utters a sound, or a flower exhales an odour, that science could only accept it as an hypothesis of no great likelihood or high value, and which at all events required at once to be tested, as to its utility as an interpreter of known phenomena, and a guide to the discovery of new ones."

"The doctrine of phlogiston... [i]nstead of being treated as a doubtful hypothesis... was employed as a perfect theory; and phenomena at variance with it were either wilfully overlooked, or compelled to adjust themselves to its Procrustean bed."

"A true hypothesis, or one in the main, true, is always found capable of explaining more than it professed or expected to explain. But the phlogiston hypothesis transgressed its own self-imposed conditions, and failed to explain the most simple and essential phenomena of combustion. Thus its presence in bodies was held to confer upon them combustibility, yet when transferred from a blazing combustible to air, instead of rendering the latter inflammable, and changing it into a gas which could be kindled, it changed it into one which was totally incombustible and at once extinguished flame; for phlogisticated air in its simplest form was our ."

"[P]hlogiston was held to be a material and therefore ponderable substance, so that its escape from a combustible should have caused the latter to diminish in weight; yet the metals and phosphorus were known to increase in weight by combustion. Thus the lameness of the phlogiston hypothesis was betrayed at its first step, and it had to be furnished with a crutch, in the shape of an assumption that it was a principle of levity, so that a body containing it weighed less than if it were absent, before it could move a step further. Many of the Phlogistians... did not adopt this assumption... but they ignored the phenomenon of increased weight... and stood in the anomalous position of professors of a Quantitative Science, who should weigh and measure... and yet had put aside the balance as a useless thing."

"That a burning body changed the quality of the air around it, whilst itself undergoing a complete change of properties, had not escaped the attention of the phlogistians. Beccher and Stahl, although they made no investigation into the nature of the change which air underwent when it supported combustion, were aware that a limited quantity of air in which a combustible had burned till it was extinguished, could not a second time support combustion, a fact... of universal belief from the earliest times."

"Such, then, was the crude and clumsy hypothesis which was recognised as a fundamental law of all chemistry, at the period when Cavendish commenced his Experiments on Air. Their object was to ascertain what Beccher and Stahl should have ascertained before they promulgated their hypothesis, viz., what change does combustion effect upon air."

"The discovery of oxygen, of , and of other gases, and the experiments which Priestley, Scheele, and Lavoisier had been assiduously making for some years, had directed... attention... to the fact, that air not only became irrespirable and unable to support combustion when exposed to the action of burning inflammables, but... underwent a diminution in volume, so that a portion of it was to appearance lost."

"To discover what became of the lost air was a question which, in 1777, greatly interested... chemists... and Cavendish's attention was specially directed to the problem, by the researches of Scheele on this point... Priestley and Lavoisier had, contemporaneously with Scheele, investigated the same subject; and all three had made some progress, especially Lavoisier, in explaining the problem."

"When those researches commenced, air was universally reputed to be a simple or elementary body. It was liable, according to the phlogistians, to vitiation, by the addition to it of phlogiston, so that it was referred to as being more or less phlogisticated, according to the degree of its power to support respiration and combustion."

"When oxygen was discovered by Priestley and Scheele, it was regarded by them as air altogether respirable, and exhibiting a maximum power of supporting combustion, because it was quite free from phlogiston. It was named accordingly de-phlogisticated air, and for a season the atmosphere was referred to as consisting of two parts, a "dephlogisticated part" and a "phlogisticated part," which differed... only in degree. By-and-by those parts were regarded as differing in kind, not merely in degree; the dephlogisticated part, or dephlogisticated air, being our oxygen, and the phlogisticated part or air, our . Cavendish's enquiry began before this later view became general."

"He had proceeded but a short way in his attempt to discover what became of the air apparently lost during combustion, when he was arrested in his researches by the necessity... of ascertaining the quantitative composition of atmospheric air."

"The problem which originally interested him... If any combustible, such as , , or a candle, was allowed to burn till it went out, in a portion of air confined over water, the volume of the air was observed to diminish as the combustion proceeded, and at its close the water was found to have risen through about a fifth of the space originally occupied by the air."

"[[[Henry Cavendish|H]e]] published in 1783, and, like all his other papers, the modest title... An Account of a New , conveyed a very imperfect idea of its contents. ...[I]t is ostensibly devoted to the explanation of an instrument for determining the proportion of oxygen in air, by observing the contraction which followed its mixture with a given volume of . Priestley, the first investigator of the properties of nitric oxide, had devised this process, but was too inaccurate a manipulator to make good use of it."

"[N]itrous gas... can combine with oxygen in various proportions, according to the mode in which it is mixed with air... Priestley... and the great majority of his contemporaries were either ignorant or heedless of this fact... travelling from place to place, analysing what they called the good air and the bad air of different localities, and coming to the most extravagant conclusions as to the relative purity of specimens... in which... modern analysis would fail to detect any difference."

"The instruments... ', or measurers of the goodness of the air; the object of the analyst being to determine the freedom of the air from phlogiston, which rendered it bad in proportion to the amount of it present."

"By the performance of an immense number of elaborate experiments, Cavendish succeeded in perfecting a process, by means of which he could employ so as to occasion a constant amount of contraction, when mixed with different portions of the same specimen of air. Having certified this, he applied his method to the determination of the two important questions: Is the atmosphere constant in composition? And if so, what is its composition?"

"He came to the conclusion which all subsequent observations have confirmed, that no sensible difference can be detected by Eudiometrical analysis between the purity of different specimens of atmospheric air. It was universally such "that the quantity of pure air in common air is 10/48" or... the per centage by volume of oxygen in air is 20.83. This... is remarkable... accuracy, when we consider how totally the great majority, not only of Cavendish's contemporaries, but also his successors, even among living philosophers, failed to obtain any constant results with nitric oxide eudiometers."

"Cavendish is... the discoverer of the constant composition of the atmosphere, and its first accurate analyst."

"[T]he atmosphere had long occupied his attention. So far back as 1766 he had imperfectly analysed it, by observing the loudness... which it gave when detonated with . This device might be called an Acoustic Eudiometer."

"Whilst engaged also in the enquiry... we have been discussing, he checked the results obtained with , by observing the diminution which air underwent when exposed to dissolved in water, and when exploded with in a shut vessel by means of the electric spark. The apparatus last referred to is... Cavendish's Eudiometer, and... in connexion with the discovery of the composition of water, has been selected by the Cavendish Society as their emblem, and placed on the title-page of their publications."

"Cavendish... never named this instrument a Eudiometer, nor was it his device, but Volta's. The Society's emblem represents the instrument as it is constructed at the present day, not as it was used by Cavendish."

"He concludes this paper with an estimate of... the information which the eudiometer supplies, which he shows to be very much smaller than the majority of his contemporaries imagined. His views in this respect... are another monument to the caution and sagacity with which he kept himself free from the prejudices of his time, and anticipated conclusions which were not generally accepted till a recent period."

"The protracted eudiometrical enquiry... taught Cavendish... the maximum amount of diminution... one-fifth of the original volume of the air... was the dephlogisticated part, or pure air (oxygen), of the atmosphere, which disappeared during combustion, so that he was now fully prepared to enquire what had become of the lost oxygen. His account... forms the first series of his Experiments on Air... read to the Royal Society in January 1784... a year after the paper on the New Eudiometer..."

"When he commenced... researches, he found an opinion prevailing, that the production of fixed air, or , is the invariable result of what he called the phlogistication, and we should call the deoxidation, of atmospheric air. He readily disproved... this view, and also of another notion, that nitric, or sulphuric acid was produced in those circumstances; and having disposed of these erroneous opinions, he proceeded to observe with great care, what was the product of the combustion of in air and in ."

"Priestley, and... Mr. [John] Warltire, had already experimented on this... with a detonating globe of the same kind as... Cavendish's Eudiometer. Their experiments were made partly in metallic, partly in glass vessels, and when employing the latter, they observed a deposition of moisture follow each explosion, but Priestley paid no attention to this... and Warltire referred it to the condensation of water which had been diffused in the state of vapour through the gases. ...Cavendish ...from the first appears to have anticipated that in the deposited water would be found the oxygen, which disappeared during the combustion of hydrogen in air, and the explanation of the diminution in volume which attended the vitiation of air."

"[I]n his paper on , of 1766, he had represented this gas as itself phlogiston. He now experimented accordingly upon it, not as an individual combustible which would yield a certain product, but as the phlogiston... in all combustibles, and the product of whose combustion would represent the universal product of combustion."

"He first employed and air, varying their relative proportion, till he ascertained that ratio in which, after their explosion in a shut vessel, the air was found diminished one-fifth, whilst the residual air was free from oxygen, and possessed the properties of ."

"In place of the oxygen which had thus disappeared, and a volume of hydrogen twice as great which had burned along with it, there was found a certain amount of liquid. The globe, moreover, had remained shut during the experiment, so that nothing had been allowed to escape, and nothing ponderable had been lost, for the vessel was found to weigh the same after the electric spark had passed, as before the explosion."

"[T]here was exactly the same weight of matter in the globe after the explosion as before, but the oxygen originally present in the air, and twice its volume of the hydrogen which had been mixed with it, had disappeared as gases, and were replaced by a volume of liquid, which... exactly equalled them in weight."

"Cavendish... unhesitatingly concluded, that in the circumstances described, "almost all the inflammable air, and about one-fifth part of the common air, lose their elasticity and are condensed into the dew which lines the glass.""

"Having demonstrated... that the lost gas was accounted for, and remained in the produced liquid, he proceeded to investigate the nature of the latter. The globe explosions yielded too small a quantity of liquid for a full analysis. He burned together, accordingly, by direct combustion, a large volume of hydrogen with 2 1/2 times that quantity of common air within a glass cylinder, and collected the liquid produced. This he found to be without taste, or smell, or action on colouring matter, and to leave no sediment on evaporation; in short... "it seemed pure water," and his... conclusion... "that this dew is plain water, and consequently, that almost all the inflammable air, and about one-fifth of the common air, are turned into pure water.""

"The proceeding quotation contains the account of the first conclusion that was drawn concerning the compound nature of water, and the possibility of producing it out of hydrogen, and the oxygen contained in air."

"Cavendish proceeded to try whether free oxygen, if detonated with hydrogen, would in like manner yield water. ... [I]t was only necessary to fill the globe with a mixture of one volume of oxygen and two of hydrogen, and to explode it by the electric spark, to secure the entire conversion of the contents of the globe into water. Cavendish came as near this result, as a slight mistake in the adjustment of the combining volumes of hydrogen and oxygen, and the limits of error in such an experiment, at the period when it was made... permitted."

"[A]n unexpected and perplexing phenomenon showed itself. The liquid instead of being pure water, was found in certain cases to consist in addition of an acid, which analysis proved to be the nitric, and a long and difficult investigation had to be prosecuted into the source of this acid, the composition of which... was totally unknown in 1784."

"This startling phenomenon, on which the chemistry of the period could throw no light... led not only Priestley, but even La Place astray; and it was probably ignorance of the phenomenon on the part of Watt and Lavoisier, which saved them from being entangled in difficulties in their investigation into the nature of water."

"Cavendish solved the problem... and whilst he avoided the confusion in which it involved others, he built upon it an additional great discovery. After ascertaining that the appearance of nitric acid was not dependent on the source from which the oxygen was prepared, and that the acid did not show itself unless more than a combining measure of oxygen was detonated with the hydrogen, he traced its production to the presence in the [eudiometer] of a little nitrogen, derived from the atmospheric air which had originally filled it, or had become mingled with the hydrogen and oxygen during their preparation or collection. He... verified this conclusion, by showing that the artificial addition of nitrogen to hydrogen, mixed with more than one-half its volume of oxygen, increased the amount of nitric acid produced at each detonation, and on the other hand, that if the hydrogen instead of the oxygen was in excess, no nitric acid appeared, although nitrogen was present."

"In this way he demonstrated that the only product of the combustion of pure hydrogen and oxygen is pure water; but he was further led to a view of the composition of nitric acid, which he carried out in the second series of his experiments on air, and which secures to him the honour of being the discoverer of the composition of nitric acid, as well as of that of water."

"The general conclusion to which Cavendish came concerning the nature of water, was in his own words, "that water consists of dephlogisticated air united with phlogiston;" and as dephlogisticated air was his term for oxygen, and phlogiston his term for , this... corresponds to the modern view of the nature of water introduced by Lavoisier. The two views cannot be considered identical, yet this is certain, that Cavendish was the first who consciously converted hydrogen and oxygen into water, and taught that it consisted of them."

"His identification, however, of and phlogiston, and his inheritance of the prejudices of the early phlogiston school, led him to the erroneous conclusion that every combustible contains hydrogen, and that the deoxidation of air and the oxidation of combustibles, are invariably accompanied by the production of water. In this respect he erred, but we may forgive the discoverer of so great a truth as that of the composition of water, for over-estimating its importance. To this, and to the other points glanced at in this sketch of the first series of experiments on air, I have referred fully in the abstract of the paper, and in the chapters devoted to the discussion of the Water Controversy."

"It only remains that I offer very briefly my own estimate of the character of the Philosopher. Morally it was a blank, and can be described only by a series of negations. He did not love; he did not hate; he did not hope; he did not fear; he did not worship as others do. He separated himself from his fellow men, and apparently from God. There was nothing earnest, enthusiastic, heroic, or chivalrous in his nature, and as little was there anything mean, grovelling, or ignoble. He was almost passionless."

"All that needed for its apprehension, more than the pure intellect, or required the exercise of fancy, imagination, affection, or faith, was distasteful to Cavendish. An intellectual head thinking, a pair of wonderfully acute eyes observing, and a pair of very skilful hands experimenting or recording, are all that I realise in reading his memorials."

"His brain seems to have been but a calculating engine; his eyes inlets of vision, not fountains of tears; his hands instruments of manipulation which never trembled with emotion, or were clasped together in adoration, thanksgiving, or despair; his heart only an anatomical organ, necessary for of the circulation of the blood."

"Yet, if such a being, who reversed the maxim nihil humani me alienum puto [nothing human is foreign to me], cannot be loved, as little can he be abhorred or despised. He was, in spite of the atrophy or non development of many of the faculties which are found in those in whom the "elements are kindly mixed," as truly a genius as the mere poets, painters, and musicians, with small intellects, and hearts and large imaginations, to whom the world is so willing to bend the knee."

"He is more to be wondered at than blamed."

"Cavendish did not stand aloof from other men in a proud or supercilious spirit, refusing to count them his fellows. He felt himself separated from them by a great gulf, which neither they nor he could bridge over, and across which it was vain to stretch hands or exchange greetings. A sense of isolation from his brethren, made him shrink from their society and avoid their presence, but he did so as one conscious of an infirmity, not boasting of an excellence."

"He was like a deaf mute sitting apart from a circle, whose looks and gestures show that they are uttering and listening to music and eloquence, in producing or welcoming which he can be no sharer. Wisely, therefore, he dwelt apart, and bidding the world farewell, took the self imposed vows of a Scientific Anchorite, and, like the Monks of old, shut himself up within his cell. It was a kingdom sufficient for him, and from its narrow window he saw as much of the Universe as he cared to see. It had a throne also, and from it he dispensed royal gifts to his brethren."

"He was one of the unthanked benefactors of his race, who was patiently teaching and serving mankind, whilst they were shrinking from his coldness, or mocking his peculiarities."

"He could not sing for them a sweet song, or create a "thing of beauty" which should be "a joy for ever," or touch their hearts, or fire their spirits, or deepen their reverence or their fervour. He was not a Poet, a Priest, or a Prophet, but only a cold, clear, Intelligence, raying down pure white light, which brightened everything on which it fell, but warmed nothing—a Star of at least the second, if not of the first magnitude, in the Intellectual Firmament."

"Comparatively little is known concerning the personal history of [Cavendish]. Nor is there much hope now that more may be gleaned. It may be doubted, indeed, whether there is much more to learn, for apart from his scientific achievements, his life was singularly uneventful. He lived a solitary, secluded existence, and, despite his rank, and, in his later years, his great wealth, he deliberately refrained from any attempts to exercise the slightest social influence. He left no personal records, and few of his letters seem to have been preserved, possibly because few were written. Such as are known relate almost exclusively to matters of science and are otherwise of very slight human interest. All the knowledge of him we possess is based upon the fragmentary notices of a few contemporaries, principally Thomas Young, Thomas Thomson of Glasgow, Sir Humphry Davy, and Lord Brougham. Their accounts, together with the reminiscences of others who had a certain small measure of personal acquaintance with him, or were able to communicate hearsay information concerning his character, habits and mode of life, have been brought together by the late Dr George Wilson, of Edinburgh, whose Life of the Honble Henry Cavendish, written at the request of the Cavendish Society, and published in 1851, still remains the only authoritative biography of the philosopher."

"For the details of Sir Humphry Davy's personal history, as set forth in this little book, I am mainly indebted to the well-known memoirs by Dr. Paris and Dr. John Davy. As biographies, these works are of very unequal value."

"Dr. Paris is not unfrequently inaccurate in his statements as to matters of fact, and disingenuous in his inferences as to matters of conduct and opinion. The very extravagance of his laudation suggests a doubt of his judgment or of his sincerity, and this is strengthened by the too evident relish with which he dwells upon the foibles and frailties of his subject. The insincerity is reflected in the literary style of the narrative, which is inflated and over-wrought."

"Sir Walter Scott, who knew Davy well and who admired his genius and his many social gifts, characterised [Paris'] book as "ungentlemanly" in tone; and there is no doubt that it gave pain to many of Davy's friends who, like Scott, believed that justice had not been done to his character."

"Dr. Davy's book... whilst perhaps too partial at times... is written with candour, and a sobriety of tone and a directness and simplicity of statement far more effective than the stilted euphuistic periods of Dr. Paris, even when he seeks to be most forcible."

"When... I have had to deal with conflicting or inconsistent statements in the two works on matters of fact, I have generally preferred to accept the version of Dr. Davy, on the ground that he had access to sources of information not available to Dr. Paris."

"Davy played such a considerable part in the social and intellectual world of London... that... his name frequently occurs in the personal memoirs and biographical literature... and a number of journals and diaries, such as those of Horner, Ticknor, , Lockhart, Maria Edgeworth, and others that might be mentioned, make reference to him and his work, and indicate what his contemporaries thought of his character and achievements. Some of these references will be found in the following pages."

"Londoners... owe the Zoological Gardens, in large measure, to a Professor of Chemistry in Albemarle Street, and that the magnificent establishment in the Cromwell Road, South Kensington, is the outcome of the representations, unsuccessful for a time, which he made to his brother trustees of the as to the place of natural history in the national collections. Davy had a leading share also in the foundation of the Athenæum Club, and was one of its first trustees."

"I am... indebted to Dr. Rollenston for the loan of a portrait representing Davy in Court dress and in the presidential chair of the Royal Society, which, reproduced in , forms the frontispiece to this book. The original is a small highly finished work by Jackson, and was painted about 1823. The picture originally belonged to Lady Davy, who refers to it in the letter to (quoted by Weld in his "History of the Royal Society"), in which she offers Lawrence's well-known portrait to the Society, and which... the Society nearly lost through the subsequent action of the painter."

"For the references to the early history of the I am mainly indebted to Dr. Bence Jones's book."

"It is not necessary to belittle Davy in order to exalt Faraday; and writers who, like Dr. Paris, unmindful of George Herbert's injunction, are prone to adopt an antithetical style in biographical narrative have, I am convinced, done Davy's memory much harm."

"With the exception of a rapid journey into Cornwall, for the sake of seeing his family, he spent the greater part of the summer and autumn of 1807 in town. He had been made Secretary of the in succession to Gray, and was obliged to be in or near London in order to see the Philosophical Transactions through the press. From the Laboratory Journal it would appear that he was occupied at this time on a variety of disconnected investigations such as the nature of Antwerp Blue, and the effect of electricity on flame. In a letter to , dated September 12th, he states that he has been a good deal engaged in experiments on distillation for revenue purposes."

"Towards the end of this month, or during the first week of October, he resumed his experiments with the voltaic battery, and he was led to study its action on the alkalis. There is some evidence that he had attacked the same question at Bristol."

"In a note-book of that period, under date August 6th, 1800, is the following sentence: "I cannot close this notice without feeling grateful to M. Volta, Mr. Nicholson, and Mr. Carlisle, whose experience has placed such a wonderful and important instrument of analysis in my power"..."

"This is immediately followed by "Query: Would not potash, dissolved in spirits of wine, become a conductor?" And he then gives an account of some experiments on the action of voltaic electricity on aqueous solutions of , caustic potash, and , which apparently led to the same result as that already obtained by Nicholson and Carlisle in the case of water."

"[H]e said of the alchemists that "even their failures developed some unsought-for object partaking of the marvellous"—and the statement in this case is even more true of himself."

"Each phase in the story of this discovery indeed partakes of the marvellous. Sometime during the first fortnight in October, 1807, he obtained his first decisive result; and on the 19th of November he delivered what is generally regarded as the most memorable of all his Bakerian lectures, "On some new Phenomena of chemical Changes produced by Electricity, particularly the Decomposition of the fixed Alkalies, and the Exhibition of the new substances which constitute their bases; and on the general Nature of alkaline Bodies.""

"Few discoveries of like magnitude have been made and perfected in so short a time, and few memoirs have been more momentous in result than that which Davy put together in a few hours, and in which he announced his results to the world."

"The whole work was done under conditions of great mental excitement. His cousin ,.. his assistant, relates that when he [Humphrey Davy] saw the minute globules of the quicksilver-like metal burst through the crust of potash and take fire, his joy knew no bounds; he actually danced about the room in ecstasy, and it was some time before he was sufficiently composed to continue his experiments. The rapidity with which he accumulated results after this first feeling of delirious delight had passed was extraordinary."

"Before the middle of November he had obtained most of the leading facts. In a letter dated November 13th he tells W. H. Pepys—"

"[H]e seldom entered the laboratory before ten or eleven in the morning, and rarely left it later than four, and he was scarcely ever known to visit it after he had dressed for dinner."

"Except when preparing a lecture, he seldom dined in his rooms at the Institution: his brother tells us that his invitations to dinner were so numerous that he was, or might have been, constantly engaged; and after dinner he was much in the habit of attending evening parties, and devoting the evening to amusement, "so that to the mere frequenters of such parties he must have appeared a votary of fashion rather than of science.""

"The Bakerian lecture in which Davy announces the discovery of the compound nature of the fixed alkalis opens with a reference to the concluding remarks of his lecture of the previous year, "that the new methods of investigation promised to lead to a more intimate knowledge than had hitherto been obtained concerning the true elements of bodies. This conjecture, then sanctioned only by strong analogies, I am now happy to be able to support by some conclusive facts.""

"In the first attempts he made to decompose the fixed alkalis he acted upon concentrated aqueous solutions of potash and soda with the highest electrical power he could then command at the Royal Institution—viz. from voltaic batteries containing 24 plates of copper and zinc of 12 inches square, 100 plates of 6 inches, and 150 of 4 inches, charged with solutions of alum and nitric acid; but although there was high intensity of action nothing but and oxygen was disengaged."

"He next tried potash in igneous fusion, and here the results were more encouraging: there were obvious and striking signs of decomposition; combustible matter was produced accompanied with flame and a most intense light."

"He had observed that although potash when dry is a nonconductor, it readily conducts when it becomes damp by exposure to air, and in this state "fuses and decomposes by strong electrical powers.""

"It is frequently stated that Davy was enabled to isolate the metals of the alkalis because of the large and powerful voltaic battery which he had at his disposal in the Royal Institution. This is not correct. The battery he employed was of very moderate dimensions, and not by any means extraordinary in power. It was the success he thus achieved that caused the large battery, which is probably referred to, to be constructed, by special subscription, in 1809."

"The platina... was, he found, in no way connected with the result: a substance of the same kind was produced when copper, silver, gold, plumbago, or even charcoal was employed for completing the circuit."

"It would seem from his description of its properties that the potassium he obtained was most probably alloyed with sodium derived from impure potash. Potassium is solid up to 143° F.; but, as Davy subsequently found, an alloy of potassium and sodium is fluid at ordinary temperatures."

"When the potassium was exposed to air its metallic lustre was immediately destroyed, and it was ultimately wholly reconverted into potash by absorption of oxygen and moisture."

"With the substance from soda the appearance and effects were analogous."

"When heated in oxygen to a sufficiently high temperature, both substances burnt with a brilliant white flame."

"On account of their alterability on exposure to air, Davy had considerable difficulty in preserving and confining them so as to examine the properties of the new substances. As he says, like the s imagined by the alchemists, they acted more or less upon almost every body to which they were exposed."

"He eventually found that they might be preserved in ."

"The "basis" of potash at 50° F. was a soft and malleable solid with the lustre of polished silver."

"It may be converted into vapour at a temperature approaching a red-heat, and may be distilled unchanged; it is a perfect conductor of electricity and an excellent conductor of heat. Its most marked difference from the common run of metals was its extraordinarily low specific gravity."

"Davy endeavoured to gain an approximation to its relative weight by comparing the weight of a globule with that of an equal-sized globule of mercury."

"Although no great stress can be laid on numbers so obtained, they serve to indicate that Davy had not yet obtained the pure metal."

"The "basis" of soda is described as a white opaque substance of the lustre and general appearance of silver. It is soft and malleable, and is a good conductor of heat and electricity. Its specific gravity was found by flotation in a mixture of oil of sassafras and naphtha... It was found to fuse at about 180° F. (the real melting point of sodium is 197.5°). Its action on a number of substances—oxygen, hydrogen, water, etc.—is then described, and its general behaviour contrasted with that of the "basis" of potash."

"Davy then attempted to determine the amount of the "metallic bases" in potash and soda respectively... the results are fairly accurate."

"He then enters upon some general observations on the relations of the "bases" of potash and soda to other bodies."

"[S]uch was his position in England at this period, that a Bakerian lecture seemed to be expected from him at each succeeding session of the as a matter of course, and he was always ready to respond to the expectation, even if he did not invariably satisfy it."

"On November 16th, 1809, he read his fourth Bakerian lecture. It was "On some new Electrochemical Researches on various Objects, particularly the metallic Bodies, from the Alkalies and Earths, and on some Combinations of Hydrogene.""

"He begins by again drawing attention to the various surmises which had been made respecting the true nature of potassium and sodium. Although these substances had been isolated, and in the hands of chemists for upwards of two years, their properties were so extraordinary when compared with those of the metals in general, that many philosophers hesitated to consider them as true metals."

"Gay Lussac and Thenard... regarded them as compounds of potash or soda with ; [F. R.] Curaudau as combinations of or carbon and hydrogen with the alkalis; whilst an ingenious inquirer in this country communicated to Nicholson's Journal his belief that they were really composed of oxygen and hydrogen!"

"Davy, in the light of the fuller knowledge he obtained from Gay Lussac and Thenard's paper in the "Mem. d’Arcueil"... had no difficulty in again proving "that by the operation of potassium upon , it is not a metallic body that is decompounded, but the volatile alkali, and that the hydrogen produced does not arise from the potassium, as is asserted by the French chemists, but from the ammonia.""

"M. Curaudau's hypothesis is shown to be based upon the accidental association of with the metals he employed."

"In repeating some experiments of Ritter's, designed to show that potassium contained hydrogen, Davy was led to the discovery of telluretted hydrogen, the properties of which he describes in some detail. at that time was regarded as a metal, but Davy points out its strong analogies to sulphur, with which element, indeed, it is now classed."

"The paper is noteworthy for the clear distinction which is drawn for the first time between potash hydrate ( of modern nomenclature) and , the product formed by heating the metal in ordinary oxygen."

"There is much in the rest of the paper that is ingenious and suggestive, and not a few isolated facts that seem to have been lost sight of, or rediscovered by subsequent observers, such... as the action of upon metallic —an action which has vitiated the attempts to determine the vapour density of that metal in iron vessels."

"Davy clings to the belief that will turn out to be a compound substance, and with what pertinacity he importunes it to give up its components. At times he thinks he is on the verge of proof. "I hope on Thursday,” he wrote to his friend Children, "to show you nitrogen as a complete wreck, torn to pieces in different ways." But still nitrogen, with that passive immutability which is characteristic of it, in spite of every form of torture, remained whole and indissoluble. On this point he wrote in the Laboratory Journal under date February 15th:—"Were a description... to be given of all the experiments I have made, of all the difficulties I have encountered, of the doubts that have occurred, and the hypotheses formed ——." But the sentence was not finished. The attack was renewed and continued throughout the whole of the spring and summer, until, fairly baffled, Davy confessed himself beaten, and turned his attention to other matters."

"Davy was perfectly reckless with apparatus; with him to think was to act, and he frequently had half a dozen experiments going on simultaneously, upon disconnected parts of the same inquiry."

"His usual method of erasure was by dipping his finger in the ink-pot; and... he was simply "Death on pens!""

"Dr. Thorpe has succeeded excellently in his endeavour to condense the somewhat diffuse biographies of Humphry Davy, written by Dr. Paris and Dr. John Davy, and to give us in moderate compass all the information concerning him that we need to remember. In doing this he has also been able to add much that is valuable, which now appears for the first time. The portrait of Davy, by Jackson, reproduced in photogravure, which forms the frontispiece to Dr. Thorpe's volume, greatly adds to the interest of Humphry Davy: Poet and Philosopher."