"On 22 September 1755, seized by bigotry, a local qazi (judge of Muslim canonical law) and a muhtasib (censor of morals) rallied together a band of fanatical Muslims and destroyed the Vishwanath shrine. A rare manuscript, Delhi Chronicle, documents this unfortunate event: ‘They [the qazi and muhtasib] overthrew the golden pitcher which had been fixed on the top … they plundered some men who were going to worship it, they cut down a pipal tree and threw it into well.’"

"The Lingum of the original temple of Vishveshvur [sic] was looked upon as the genuine type of Mahadeo or Shiva, which fell from heaven upon this spot, and was converted into stone. When the Moosulmans [sic] set about their work of destruction, it is asserted, the indignant image leaped on its own accord into the Gyan Bapee (well of knowledge) hard by, where it still remains. The well has since been considered to be centre of the Untrigrihee Jatra [Antargriha Yatra: more on this later] or Holy Circuit, although a modern Shiwala, erected near the spot, pretends to have reinstated the genuine Lingum, and fashion is rapidly acquiescing in the arrangement."

"The engineers of Aurangzeb could have utilized the whole of the temple area for their new mosque, if they had decided to convert the western wall of the temple into the Mihrab wall of their mosque. But this could not have rendered possible the conversion of the sanctuary of Vishvanatha into the central hall of the mosque, which was Aurangzeb’s chief desideratum. They, therefore, decided merely to pull down the western hall of the temple and its adjoining subsidiary shrines. They removed useful building material, levelled up the debris, and allowed it to remain in that uncouth condition, as the area was behind their mosque. It is still in that condition today. The debris is on a level with the level of the mosque courtyard and its height from the pradakshina path to the west varies from four to six feet. A portion of the superstructure of this Western Mandap can still be seen in the ruins today. It enables us to conclude that its dome was not covered by the principle of arch, which was usually followed by the Muslims, but by successive protrusions of the courses of stones, and by cutting off all the angles laterally, so as to change the square into a polygon and thence gradually into a circle."

"‘The city is small, but very ancient, and venerated by Hindus by reason of a temple there possessing a very ancient idol. Some years after my visit, Aurangzeb sent orders for its destruction, when he undertook the knocking down of all temples.’"

"This place is generally peopled with Hindoos of 3 sorts, viz., Khattrees [Khatris], Brahmanes [Brahmins], and Banians [Banias] and resorted unto from far, drawn hither by their superstitious reverence to the river Ganges (which runs by it), As also to divers [sic] Pagodes, Dewraes [duera, temple] or churches. The chiefest is called Cassibessuua [Bisheshar] being of Mahadeu [Mahadev, Shiva]; I went into it, where in the middle, on a place elevated, is a stone in form like a Hatters block plain and unwrought … on which they that resort pour water of the river, flowers, rice, butter, which here (by reason of the heat) is most commonly liquid, whilst the Bramane reads or says something which the vulgar understands not. Over it hangs a canopy of silk and about it several lamps lighted. The meaning of that plain blunt form, as I was told by a plain blunt fellow, was that it represented the head of Mahadeus virile member. If so, some mystery may be conceived why little children are by their mothers brought to this saint to be cured. Perhaps conservation as well as generation is thereby implied. Other Dewraes they have with images which they much reverence, as of Gunesh with an elephant’s trunk instead of a nose, of Chutterbudge [Chaturbhuj] with 6 faces, 6 arms and hands. Also in most of their Dewraes, in the most private and chiefest place of all, is the image of a woman sitting cross-legged, adorned with jewels. This much reverenced from Agra Westward, but Mahadew for the most part here away. Also most commonly before the going in of their Dewraes, they have the image of a calf or young bullock [Nandi, the bull vehicle of Shiva]. Here in their great Pagodes were many like rooms apart, with their several images, of which there were many that lay up and down in sundry places, of a reasonable form, and the best cut that I have yet seen in India. Others that I have therefore met with all were for the most part misshapen."

"In his note dated 3 September 1632, Peter Mundy writes, Of all the cities and towns that I have seen in India, none resembles so much those of Europe as this Banaroz doth a distance off, by reason of the many great and high spires that are in it, which belong to Pagodes or Hindoo Churches. Also when we came into it, we found it wondrous populous, good buildings, paved streets, but narrow and crooked."

"I come to the pagoda of Benares, which, after that of Jagannath, is the most famous in all India and of equal sanctity, being built on the margin of the Ganges, and in the town which it bears the name. The most remarkable thing about it is that from the door of the pagoda to the river there is a descent by stone steps, where there are at intervals platforms and small, rather, dark chambers, some of which serve as dwellings for the Brahmans, and others as kitchens where they prepare their food."

"A later court judgment of the British era in 1937 speaks about this episode and why it might have been downplayed by Muslim court chroniclers: If this story [of draught and rain] is true, then it established the efficacy of Hindu worship and of mantras, and therefore, it is possible that the Muslim historians may not have narrated this fact. The indifference of the Hindus to write history in those and previous day[s] is proverbial. However, it is a historical fact that Akbar permitted the construction and re-construction of temples, generally so even if no permission was given by him, then too it is not improbable that this temple might have been reconstructed during his times, and the Hindus of that and subsequent times might have concocted the story that the temple was reconstructed with the permission of Akbar so that the Muslim in subsequent times may not demolish it."

"Even if the linga of Viśveśvara here is taken off somewhere and another is brought in and established by human hands, on account of the difficulty of the times, whatever is established in that place should be worshipped, or the spot where it was should itself be worshipped … these acts of worship have to be performed with regard to the different liṅga that has come to occupy that spot even though the primary Viśveśvara Jyotirliṅga is not present there…and if, owing to the power of the wicked foreign rulers (Mlecchaadi Dushta Raja), there is no linga at all in that place, even so, the dharma of the place itself should be observed, with rites of circumambulation, salutation etc. and in this way the daily pilgrimage (nitya yatra) shall be performed …. Such performances are to be construed as similar even in situations of replacement of liṅga or the replacement of the pratimā (image)."

"That another Vishweshwara shrine had come up in Varanasi by or before 1296 ce is attested by the fact that an inscription dated Wednesday, 15 May 1296, in another newly constructed grand Vishnu shrine, called Padmeswhar, states, Om! Glory to Ganapati. In Ayodhya, lived formerly Sadhesadhu, the speaker of truth, beloved of good men, whose delight consisted in the welfare of all beings. His son was the famous Sadhunidhi, whose son Padmasadhu, of steadfast virtue, on the north side of the entrance to the Visvesvara temple at Kashi built a solid and lofty temple of God Padmesvara, on Wednesday, the twelfth day of the waning moon of the Jyaistha, in the year of Plava: Samvat 1353 [i.e., 1296 ce], on which day this eulogy was written."

"Om! Glory be to Ganapati. In Ayodhya lived formerly Sadhesadhu, the speaker of truth, beloved of good men, whose delight consisted in the welfare of all beings. His son was the famous Sadhunidhi, whose son Padmasadhu, of steadfast virtue, on the north side of the entrance to the Visvesvara temple at Kasi built a solid and lofty temple of god Padmesvara, on Wednesday, the twelfth day of the waning moon of the month of Jyaishtha, in the year of Plava: Samvat 1353, on which day this eulogy was written."

"Mosques of Alamgir (Aurangzeb). It is said that the mosque of Benares was built by Alamgir on the site of the Bisheshwar Temple. That temple was very tall and (held as) holy among the Hindus. On this very site and with those very stones he constructed a lofty mosque, and its ancient stones were rearranged after being embedded in the walls of the mosque. It is one of the renowed mosques of Hindustan. The second mosque at Benares (is the one) which was built by Alamgir on the bank of the Ganga with chiselled stones. This also is a renowned mosque of Hindustan. It has 28 towers, each of which is 238 feet tall. This is on the bank of the Ganga and its foundations extend to the depth of the waters. Alamgir built a mosque at Mathura. It is said that this mosque was built on the site of the Gobind Dev Temple which was very strong and beautiful as well as exquisite…”"

"Thousands of pilgrims who visit Mathura or walk past the site of Vishvanath temple and Gyanvapi Masjid in Varanasi everyday, are reminded of Mughal vandalism and disregard for Hindu sensitivities by Muslim rulers."

"“In August, 1669, the temple of Vishvanath at Banaras was demolished. The presiding priest of the temple was just in time to remove the idols and throw them into a neighbouring well which thus became a centre of interest ever after. The temple of Gopi Nath in Banaras was also destroyed about the same time. He (Aurangzeb) is alleged to have tried to demolish the Shiva temple of Jangamwadi in Banaras”, but could not succeed because of opposition."

"The name of this temple (which is the most venerated in Benares) is Bisseshwar or Visseshwar. Crossing the little court, which was very splashy from the quantity of libations poured out, we ascended a very narrow staircase, up which no stout person could go, to what might be called the leads of the temple. Here were three quadrilateral domes close together, which are being gilded from money left by Ranjit Sing. Immense sums were sent with a portion of his ashes to various temples, and amongst others to this one. The temple is very small in comparison to European places of worship. On descending, we were led along a curious passage full of images and altars like the first (the whole having much the appearance of the entry to a museum of antiquities), - to a well in which, when the former temple was desecrated by the Muhammadans under Aurangzeb, the god took refuge. It is surrounded by a railing, and offerings of flowers, water, and rice are continually thrown down to propitiate the helpless divinity. The odour of sanctity of Hindu Mythology is not more agreeable to the olfactory nerves than that of the Romish begging fraternities – so we quickly left the spot. The Brahmans seem in no way different in dress from their countrymen, except that all of those in the temple had their heads and beards partially shaved. Most of them wore red mantles. The remains of the former temple were very fine. On its ruins Aurangzeb built a mosque, which we proceeded to visit, and coming from the idol temple, I felt a relief, and even an emotion of sympathy with the simple building we entered, where, at least, there was nothing outward and visible to dishonour the Most High. The only thing which it contained was a raised place for the mullah to preach from."

"... the pagoda of Benares, which, after that of Jagannath, is the most famous in all India, with which it is even, as it were, on a par, being also built on the margin of the Ganges, and in the town of which it bears the name ."

"though here the linga of Visvesvara is removed and another is brought in its place by human beings, owing to the times, the pilgrims must worship whatever linga is in this place."

"The great Vishwanath temple was destroyed at least thrice from the twelfth century onwards. It was first attacked by Aibak in 1194 ce. Queen Raziya (r. 1236-1240), during her short chaotic reign, appropriated the site and had a mosque constructed there. The further history of Visveshvara has been described as “one of stubbornness and bigotry”. The temple became a prime symbol of Hindu resistance; they repeatedly rebuilt, as Muslims continually destroyed."

"Even if the linga of Vishveshvara here is taken off somewhere and another is brought in and established by human hands, on account of the difficulty of the times, whatever is established in that place should be worshipped.… And if, owing to the power of foreign rulers, there is no linga at all in that place, even so, the dharma of the place itself should be observed, with rites of circumambulation, salutation, etc., and in this way the daily pilgrimage [nityayātrā] shall be performed."

"The object of the Marathas in all these undertakings was religious as well as political. They particularly intended to get the holy places of Prayag and Kashi back into Hindu possession. On 18th .June 1751 a Maratha agent writes, “ Malharrao has pitched his monsoon camp in the Doab. He intended to pull down the grand Mas j id built by Aurangzeb at Benares and restore the original temple of Kashi-Vishveshwar. The Brahmans of Kashi feel extremely terrified at such a move, for they realize the Muslim strength in these places. What the holy Ganges and the Protector Vishveshwar can ordain will come true. The Brahmans are going to send a strong appeal to the Peshwa against any such attempt by his Sardars.”"

"In some cities, Varanasi or Lucknow, for example, mosques dominate the landscape. In Varanasi, of course, deemed by many the Hindu city par excellence, small temples literally dot the ghats and city, although most of them date no earlier than the late eighteenth century It is particularly interesting that Rani Ahilya Bai Holkar’s newly constructed Vishvanath temple, the focal tirtha in all Varanasi, is notably smaller than the adjacent mosque constructed during Aurangzeb’s reign from the spoils of an earlier Vishvanath temple.” Yet the Rani was a woman of considerable resources, and the temple was built in 1777 when Hindu political power dominated in Varanasi.” Had she wished to build a larger temple, rather than one almost lost in the interior gullies of Dasashvamedh Ghat, she could have done so."

"if owing to the power of foreign rulers, there is no linga at all in that place, even so, the dharma of thee place itself should be observed, with rites of circumambulation, salutation, etc..."

"The great Vishvanath temple was destroyed no less than three times during the centuries. It is said that in AD 1994, when first attacked by Aibak, and on each subsequent occasion, Brahmins hid the jyotirlinga... The temple was subsequently rebuilt at another location, where too it was ravaged..."

"At the back of the mosque and in continuation of it are some broken remains of what was probably the old Bishwanath Temple. It must have been a right noble building ; there is nothing finer, in the way of architecture in the whole city, than this scrap. A few pillars inside the mosque appear to be very old also."

"“When I go to the Vishwanath Mandir in Benares and listen to the most powerful, magical aarti I hear from the priests that the knowledge of it will probably die because the temple is now controlled by secular bureaucrats”."

"Your visit at the demise of the Muslim rule, O ruler of men! proves to be as soothing as a shade to a sun-stricken man. Your darsana (appearance) here is like ointment to the wound sustained by our heart on our seeing the mosque near the Visvanatha temple."

"It is a small mosque wholly devoid of magnificence, erected, according to Mussulman practice, upon the ruins of a Hindoo temple. The limited site on which it was built may not have admitted of the usual display of beauty or splendour, or the imperial founder may have considered it more as a monument of triumph than of grandeur — have desired rather that it should express contempt than command admiration, Benares was indeed taken and plundered, and given up to every excess, by Mahomed Gauri in the year 1194; but the mosque in question was constructed by Aurungzebe, who has left behind him many similar proofs of his persecution of the Hindoos. A humane king would have lamented the past injuries of his subjects, a great one would have repaired them, but Aurungzebe, in a more enlightened age, and without the palliation of his predecessor, a barbarian and a conqueror, deliberately augmented the desolation of the city, the object of veneration of a whole people, and treated with derision and dishonour the religious feelings of its most peaceful inhabitants. It struck me as one of the most remarkable instances of the passive character of the Hindoos that they should have suffered the lofty minarets of this mosque to tower over their temples so long, and to be the first objects that meet the eye of the pilgrim on his approach to the far-sought sanctuary of his religion."

"The Lord Cherisher of the Faith learnt that in the provinces of Tatta, Multan, and especially at Benares, the Brahman misbelievers used to teach their false books in their established schools, and that admirers and students both Hindu and Muslim, used to come from great distances to these misguided men in order to acquire this vile learning. His Majesty, eager to establish Islam, issued orders to the governors of all the provinces to demolish the schools and temples of the infidels and with the utmost urgency put down the teaching and the public practice of the religion of these misbelievers.'...'It was reported that, according to the Emperor's command, his officers had demolished the temple of Viswanath at Kashi.'.."

"The Gyanvapi mosque in Varanasi is very certainly located on the exact site of the Vishvanath temple, and visibly includes remains of the old temple walls."

"Aurangzeb cared nothing for art, destroyed its "heathen" monuments with coarse bigotry, and fought, through a reign of half a century, to eradicate from India almost all religions but his own. He issued orders to the provincial governors, and to his other subordinates, to raze to the ground all the temples of either Hindus or Christians, to smash every idol, and to close every Hindu school. In one year ( 1679-80) sixty-six temples were broken to pieces in Amber alone, sixty-three at Chitor, one hundred and twenty-three at Udaipur; and over the site of a Benares temple especially sacred to the Hindus he built, in deliberate insult, a Mohammedan mosque."

"I will now describe the two principal temples erected to the deities of the place. These are now at some distance from the Jumna, though this river once flowed by them. They are of red stone, lofty, and of a conical form. Their surface is divided into a vast number of small regular compartments, very highly sculptured, but in a style that dis¬ plays more labour than taste. The character of the architecture resembles that of the Egyptians, and is rather curious than elegant. The state of these monuments docs not seem to imply an antiquity so great as tradition assigns them. Tin y were perhaps constructed to renew or replace more ancient temoles dilapidated by time or destroyed by the Mahomedan invaders."

"The sexes are mixed together; but all is done with perfect modesty. For the cunning of the Evil One is such that he has put a false idea of religion into their minds: so that they regard it as a heinous offence to do anything foul or immodest in such a sacred place (as they regard it)."

"‘It was reported to the Emperor (Aurangzeb) that in the Temple of Keshava Rai at Mathura, there was a stone railing presented by ‘Bishukoh’ (one without dignity i.e. Prince Dara, Aurangzeb’s elder brother). On hearing it, the Emperor observed, “In the religion of the Musalmans, it is improper even to look at a Temple and this Bishukoh had installed this kathra (barrier railing). Such an act is totally unbecoming of a Musalman. This railing should be removed (forthwith).” His Majesty ordered Abdun Nabi Khan to go and remove the kathra, which was in the middle of the Temple. The Khan went and removed it. After doing it he had audience. He informed that the idol of Keshava Rai was in the inner chamber. The railing presented by Dara was in front of the chamber and that, formerly, it was of wood. Inside the kathra used to stand the sevakas of the shrine (pujaris etc.) and outside it stood the people (khalq)’."

"“Glory be to God, who has given us the faith of Islam, that, in this reign of the destroyer of false gods, an undertaking so difficult of accomplishment has been brought to a successful termination!“"

"The site is a Most Promising one for discovery, and as the Masjid has long been disused, owing to many dangerous cracks in both roof and walls, I believe that there would not be any objection whatever to a complete exploration of the mound."

"The greater part of the foundations of the Hindu temple of Kesava Ray may still be traced at the back of the Masjid, Indeed, the back wall of the mosque itself is actually built upon the plinth of the temple, one of the cyma reversa mouldings being filled up with brick and mortar, I traced the walls for a distance of 163 feet to the Westward... the temple of Kesava Deva must have been one of the largest in India"

"There is no inscription on the building (Jama Masjid at Mathura), but people ascribe it to Aurungzib, who is said to have pulled down the great Hindu temple of Kesava Deva or Keso Ray, that formerly stood on this high mound, a most noble position, which commands a fine view of the whole city. Curiously enough I have been able to verify this charge against Aurungzib by means of some inscriptions on the pavement slabs, which were recorded by Hindu pilgrims to the shrine of Kesava Ray. In relaying the pavement the Muhammadan architect was obliged to cut many of the slabs to make them fit into their new places. This was proved by several slabs bearing incomplete portions of Nagari inscriptions of a late date. One slab has ‘bat. 1713, Phalgun,’ the initial Sam of Sambat having been cut off. Another slab hes the name of Keso Ray, the rest being wanting; while a third bears the date of S. 1720. These dates are equivalent to ‘A.D. 1656 and 1663; and, as the latter is five years subsequent to the accession of Aurangzeb, it is certain that the Hindu temple was still standing at the beginning, of his reign."

"There are no ancient buildings now standing in Mathura. As one of the most holy seats of the Hindu religion, the city was repeatedly harried by the more bigoted Muhammadan princes..."

"..by means of some inscriptions on the pavement slabs, which were recorded by Hindu pilgrims to the shrine of Kesava Ray. In relaying the pavement the Muhammadan architect was obliged to cut many of the slabs to make them fit into their new places. This was proved by several slabs bearing incomplete portions of Nagari inscriptions of a late date. One slab has ‘... vat. 1713, Phalgun,’ the initial Sam of Samvat having been cut off. Another slab has the name of Keso Ray, the rest being wanting, while a third bears the date of Samvat 1720. These dates are equivalent to AD 1656 and 1663; and, as the latter is five years subsequent to the accession of Aurangzeb, it is certain that the Hindu temple was still standing at the beginning of his reign (Cunningham 1885: 39)."

"... there can be little doubt that the great temple of Kesava had stood on this site (Katra) from a very early date, although often thrown down and as often renewed (Cunningham 1969: 31)."

"The neighbourhood is crowded with sacred sites, which for many generations have been reverenced as the traditional scenes of Krishna's adventures ; but, thanks to Muhammadan. intolerance, there is not a single building of any antiquity either in the city itself or its environs. Its most famous temple — that dedicated to Kesava Deva — was destroyed as already mentioned, in 1669, the eleventh year of the reign of the icnoclastic Aurangzeb. The mosque erected on its ruins is a building of little architectural value, but the natural advantages of its lofty and isolated position render it a striking feature in the landscape."

"... during the fast of Ramazan ... Aurangzeb had descended in person on Mathura. The temple specially marked out for destruction, was one built so recently, in the reign of Jahangir, at a cost of 33 lakhs by Bir Singh Deva, the Bundela, of Urcha. Beyond all doubt this was the last of the famous shrines of Kesava Deva ... The mosque erected on its ruins is a building of little architectural value but the natural advantage of its lofty and isolated position render it a striking feature in the landscape... . To judge from the language of the author of the Maasir, its demolition was regarded as a death-blow to Hinduism."

"He also ordered every viceroy and governor to destroy all the temples within their jurisdiction. Among others was destroyed the great temple of Mathura, which was of such a height that its gilded pinnacle could be seen from Agrah, eighteen leagues away. In its place a mosque was to be erected, to which he gave the name of Essalamabad (Islamabad) - that is, ‘built by the faithful’..."

"“On Thursday, 27th January /15 Ramzan (27 January 1670) ... the Emperor as the promoter of justice and overthrower of mischief, as a knower of truth and destroyer of oppression, as the zephyr of the garden of victory and the reviver of the faith of the Prophet, issued orders for the demolition of the temple situated in Mathura, famous as the Dehra of Kesho Rai. In a short time by the great exertions of his officers, the destruction of this strong foundation of infidelity was accomplished and on its site a lofty mosque was built by the expenditure of a large sum... Praised be the august God of the faith of Islam, that in the auspicious reign of this destroyer of infidelity and turbulence, such a wonderful and seemingly impossible work was successfully accomplished. On seeing this instance of the strength of the emperor's faith and the grandeur of his devotion to God, the proud Rajas were stifled, and in amazement they stood like images facing the wall. The idols, large and small, set with costly jewels, which had been set up in the temple, were brought to Agra, and buried under the steps of the mosque of the Begum Sahib in order to be continuously trodden upon. The name of Mathura was changed to Islamabad."

"On 14th October, 1666, learning that there was a stone railing in the temple of Keshav Rai, which Darn Shulcoh had presented to it, Aurangzib ordered it to be removed, ns a scandalous example of a Muslim’s coquetry wth idolatry. And finally in January 1670, his zeal, stimulated by the pious meditations of Ramzan, led him to send forth commands to destroy this temple altogether and to change the name of the city to Islamabad."

"Outside this grand and matchless building are a school, a worship house, an inn, about 80 houses in all, fully occupied and engaged. Although the worship was coming to an end, the men and women were dispersing, nearly thirty thousand men and women together and close (to each other) were present on that unique place. Orators, reciters of holy books, dominis, and all the administrators of affairs and others were present. Everyone stayed with their respective guides. Due to the large crowd and the ecstasy due to religious songs, it was difficult to keep one’s bearing there (O/Hanlon 2011: 196)."

"It is one of the most sumptuous buildings in alll India ... Although this pagoda, which is very large, is in a hollow, one sees it from more than 5 or 6 coss distance, the building being very elevated and very magnificent ... ([avernier 1889: 240-243)."

"Between Dehli and Agra, a distance of fifty or sixty leagues, there are no fine towns such as travellers pass through in France; the whole road is cheerless and uninteresting; nothing is worthy of observation but Maturas (Mathura), where an ancient and magnificent temple of idols is still to be seen (Bernier 1916: 284)."

"He constructed such an idol-house (deorha) in Mathura as will endure till the time of Resurrection. About ten lakh rupees have been spent on it. He had constructed in his native state a tank, forts and lofty edifices. A number of times he seated himself to weigh against gold, and once gave in charity one thousand coins with one thousand silver ewers (lotas) to Brahmins (Dhakhiratul Khawanin 2003: 134)."

"The grandest shrine of Mathura, Kesav Rai’s temple, built at a cost of 33 lakhs of rupees by the Bundela Rajah Birsingh Dev, was razed to the ground in January 1670, and a mosque built on its site. The idols were brought to Agra and buried under the steps of Jahanara’s mosque that they might be constantly trodden on by the Muslims going in to pray."