History Of India

"I ordered that all the artisans and clever mechanics, who were masters of their respective crafts, should be picked out from among the prisoners and set aside, and accordingly some thousands of craftsmen were selected to await my command. All these I distributed among the princes and amirs who were present, or who were engaged officially in other parts of my dominions. I had determined to build a Masjid-i jami in Samarkand, the seat of my empire, which should be without a rival in any country; so I ordered that all builders and stone-masons should be set apart for my own especial service."

"On the following day, Sunday, it was brought to my knowledge that a great number of infidel Hindus had assembled in the Masjid-i jami’ of Old Dehli, carrying with them arms and provisions, and were preparing to defend themselves. Some of my people, who had gone that way on business were wounded by them. I immediately [p. 65] ordered Amir Shah Malik, and Ali Sultan Tawachi to take a party of men and proceed to clear the house of God from infidels and idolaters. They accordingly attacked these infidels and put them to death. Old Dehli then was plundered."

"At this time the prince Shah Itukh said: “India is an extensive country; whatever Sultan conquers it becomes supreme over the four quarters of the globe; if under the conduct of our amir, we conquer India, we shall become rulers over the seven climes.” He then said: “I have seen in the history of Persia that, in the time of the Persian Sultans, the King of India was called [p. 10] Darai, with all honour and glory. On account of his dignity he bore no other name; and the Emperor of Rome was called Caessar and the Sultan of Persia was called Kisra, and the Sultan of the Tatars, Khakan and the Emperor of China, Faghfur; but the King of Iran and Turan bore the title of Shahinshah and the orders of the Shahinshah were always paramount over the princes and Rajas of Hindustan, and praise be to God that we are at this time Shahinshah of Iran and Turan, and it would be a pity that we should not be supreme over the country of Hindustan.” I was excessively pleased with these words of Prince Shah Rukh. Then the Prince Muhammad Sultan said: “The whole country of India is full of gold and jewels, and in it there are seventeen mines of gold and silver, diamond and ruby and emerald and tin and iron and steel and copper and quicksilver, etc., and of the plants which grow there are those fit for making wearing apparel, and aromatic plants, and the sugar cane, and it is a country which is always green and verdant and the whole aspect of the country is pleasant and delightful. Now, since the inhabitants are chiefly polytheists and infidels and idolaters and worshipers of the sun, by the order of God and his prophet, it is right for us to conquer them.”"

"I marched from this place to the banks of the river Khagar, where I halted, and Amir Sulaiman Shah arrived there also with the baggage on the 11th of the month. Samana was near to this place, and as the heavy baggage had not yet come up, I halted several days. On the 13th I marched again, and halted near the bridge of Kotila,4 an ancient structure over the river Khagar. At this stage Sultan Mahmud Khan, Prince Rustam and other commanders of regiments of the left wing, whom I had directed to march to India by way of Kabul, rejoined me. I received them graciously and enquired about the incidents which had happened on the march, and they informed me that wherever the people of any city, or village, or fort, made their submission and offered tribute, they gave them quarter; but whenever any city or fort offered resistance they conquered it, put the inhabitants to death, plundered the goods and property, and divided the spoil among tlhe soldiers. I approved and applauded them."

"The following day I rested in the town of Sarsuti, and on the next day, the 6th of the month, I marched eighteen kos, and came near the fort of Fath-abad, where I encamped. The people of Fath-abad also, by the suggestion of Satan, had fled from the town and taken refuge in the deserts and jungles. I despatched some commanders of regiments after them who overtook them and slew great numbers of them. They took all their property and goods, horses and cattle, and returned to camp laden with spoil. Next day I marched from Fath-abad, and passing by the fort of Rajab-pur, I halted in the vicinity of the fort of Ahruni. The people of this town and fort did not come out to meet me and make their submission so as to escape from the rigour of the army of Islam; so some savage Turks entered the town and began plundering. Some of the inhabitants who resisted they put to death; the others were made prisoners. The soldiers brought away great quantities of grain, and set fire to the houses and buildings of the town."

"It was again brought to my knowledge that these turbulent Jats were as numerous as ants or locusts, and that no, traveler or merchant passed unscathed from their hands. They had now taken flight, and had gone into jungles and deserts hard to penetrate. A few of them had been killed, but it was my fixed determination to clear from thieves and robbers every country that I subdued, so that the servants of God, and Musulmans and travellers might be secure from their violence. My great object in invading Hindustan had been to wage a religious war against the infidel Hindus, and it now appeared to me that it was necessary for me to put down these Jats and to deliver travelers from their hands. I consequently placed the care of the baggage and of all the plunder which had been gained in my victories in charge of Amir Sulaiman Shah, to convey it with the heavy baggage to the town of Samana."

"Raid into other parts of the Siwalik hills On the 14th Jumada-l awwal Timur passed the Jumna and proceeded to another part of the Siwalik hills. There he heard that one of the rais of Hind, called Ratan, had assembled a great number of Hindus, and [p. 140] had taken post on the lofty heights in the thick forests. The hills were so high that no eye could see from the bottom to the top, and the trees so dense that the rays of the sun and moon could not reach the ground. It was impossible to make a passage without cutting down the trees. But for all this Timur did not hesitate, and without even waiting for the night to pass, he, on the 15th,8 gave his order for the advance. The troops accordingly marched on by the light of torches, and employed themselves in cutting down the trees and clearing a way. In that night they made a progress of twelve kos and in the morning of the 15th they penetrated between the Siwalik mountain and the Kuka mountain. Here Rai Ratan had taken up his position with his forces drawn up in regular battle array, with light wing and left wing, and centre and supports.9 But when the noise of our music and the cries of our soldiers reached the ears of the Hindus, they wavered and fled, without waiting for the attack. Our officers and men pursued them, and put many of them to the sword. All their property in movables and cattle fell into the hands of the victors. Every soldier obtained a hundred to two hundred head of cattle and from ten to twenty slaves."

"On the same day Prince Pir Muhammad and Amir Shah Malik, in command of the right wing, went to another valley, where he destroyed many Hindus and obtained great spoil. The left wing, also under Prince .Tahan Shah, attacked and destroyed a body of Hindus in another direction, but they did not obtain so large a booty. On the night of the 16th both wings came up and joined the main body. In the morning Timur left [p. 141] the val1ey between the two mountains and returned to the Siwalik mountain. From this encampment to the country of Nagarkot there was a distance of fifteen parasangs. In this valley there are many dense jungles, and the mountains are high and difficult of ascent. Timur heard that there were great numbers of infidels in the mountains, and he determined to disperse and destroy them. The men of the left wing under Amir Jahan Shah, and the army of Khurasan, had acquired but little spoil, so he sent them out to make a raid and collect plunder. Early on that day Sain Tamur,10 commander of the advance-guard, came in to report that the number of Hindus in front exceeded all calculation. Timur therefore held his ground while the left wing was absent engaged in its work of plunder. The men of this force put a great many infidels to death, and acquired great spoil in wealth and cattle. On the same day at noon, news came from the regiment of Amir Shaikh Nuru-d din and Ali Sultan Tawachi that there was upon the left, a valley in which many Hindus had gathered, having with them much wealth and cattle. Timur immediately proceeded thither, and ordered the two officers who had made the report to attack the infidels. They accordingly fell upon the enemy and put many to the sword, and while they did so Timur stood upon the summit of a hill watching them and encouraging them with his presence. Many of the infidels were killed and wounded, and those who were able fled, leaving a great booty behind, which the victors brought into the presence of Timur, who warmly praised their bravery. Vast quantities of cattle were taken, and Timur stayed upon the mountain until evening, in order that the booty might be fairly distributed, and each man get his share. Every man got as much as he could take [p. 142] care of."

"That night they encamped in the valley. In the jungles there were many monkeys, and when night came on they entered the camp and carried off the things of the soldiers. In the course of one month, from the 16th of Jumada-l awwal, when Timur was between the mountains Siwalik and Kuka. to the 16th of Jumada-s sani, when he arrived at Jammu, he had twenty conflicts with the infidels and took seven fortresses, each of them a Khaibar in strength. These forts were situated one or two parasangs apart, and their occupants were all at war with each other. In the days of the old Sultans they had paid the jizya, but they had broken away from their allegiance to the sovereigns of Islam, and would not now pay the tax, so the slaughter and plunder of them was lawful and laudable."

"On the following day, the 24th of the month, I marched to Panipat, where I encamped. I there found that in obedience to orders received from the ruler of Delhi the people had deserted all their dwellings and had taken flight. When the soldiers entered the fort they reported to me that they had found a large store of wheat, amounting to some thousand mans. I ordered it to be weighed to ascertain the real weight, and then to be distributed among the soldiers. When it was weighed it was found to amount to 10,000 mans of the great weight (sang-I kalan), or 160,000 of the legal standard (sang-i-shara’). On the following day I marched from Panipat six kos, and encamped on the banks of a river which is on the road. I marched from this place on Friday, the 26th of the month, and I gave orders that the officers and soldiers of my army should put on their armour, and that every man should keep in his proper regiment and place in perfect readiness. We reached a village called Kanhi-gazin and there encamped. I issued my commands that on the morrow, the 28th of the month, a force of cavalry should proceed on a plundering excursion against the palace of Jahan-numa, a fine building erected by Sultan Firoz Shah on the top of a hill by the banks of the Jumna, which is one of the large rivers of Hindustan. Their orders were to plunder and destroy and to kill every one whom they met. Next day, in obedience to my commands, the division marched and proceeded to the palace of Jahan-numa, which is situated five miles from Delhi. They plundered every village and place they came to, killed the men, and carried off all the valuables and cattle, securing a great booty. They then returned, bringing with them a number of Hindu prisoners, both male and female."

"Raid into the Siwalik hills. On the 10th jumada-l awwal Timur marched to attack the Siwalik hills. In that mountain valley there was a [p. 139] rai named Bahruz. He had collected a great number of people around him, and had formed a numerous army. Relying besides upon the strength of the position which he occupied, he was bold and resolved upon resistance. Timur appointed Prince Pir Muhammad and several amirs of the right wing, and Prince Sultan Husain and sundry officers of the left wing, to march and attack the infidels. Amir Shaikh Nuru-d din led the advance-guard of the centre. Thus they marched against the enemy, while Timur halted at the mouth of the valley. The soldiers fought most valiantly and made dreadful slaughter of the enemy. They obtained a decisive victory, and acquired a great booty in valuables, slaves and. cattle. With the desire of doing justice, Timur ordered that the strong men of the force, who had secured as their share of the spoil three or four hundred head of cattle each, should give up part of them to the weaker men, so that all might obtain a share in the fruits of the victory, and no man remain empty-handed. This decision gave great satisfaction."

"Capture of the Fort of Mirat. The fort of Mirat was one of the most famous in India. ... On the same day, after mid-day prayer, he mounted his horse, and, taking with him 10,000 men, he marched rapidly to Mirat. That night he halted midway, and on the following day, the 29th, in the afternoon, he arrived at Mirat. .... They soon took Iyas Aghani and his son Thanesari, the commander of the fort, and, putting ropes round their necks, brought them to Timur. Safi, the gabr, one of the chiefs of the fort, was killed in the engagement, and was punished by the fire he in error adored. Next day, the remaining gabrs were brought out and put to the sword. Their wives and children were made slaves. By the imperial order fire was then placed in the mines and the bastions, and the walls were thrown down and leveled with the ground…."

"[p. 137] Destruction of the Gabrs in the Valley of Kupila—Account of a Stone Cow Worshipped by the Gabrs. The valley of Kupila is situated at the foot of a mountain by which the river Ganges passes. Fifteen kos higher up there is a stone in the form of a cow, and the water of the river flows out of the mouth of that cow. The infidels of India worship this cow, and come hither from all quarters, from distances even of a year’s journey, to visit it. They bring here and cast into the river the ashes of their dead, whose corpses have been burned, believing this to be the means of salvation. They throw gold and silver into the river; they go down alive into the river, bathe their feet, sprinkle water on their heads, and have their heads and beards shaved. This they consider to be an act of devotion, just as the Muhammadans consider the pilgrimage to Mecca a pious work. In this valley there was a large concourse of Hindus, having great riches in cattle and movables, so Timur resolved to attack them. On the 5th Jumada-l awwal he set his army in motion towards Kupila. It was the will of Heaven that these infidels should perish, so in the pride of their numbers and strength they awaited his approach, and had the temerity to resolve upon resistance. At the rising of the sun our army reached the valley. The right wing was under the command of Prince Pir Muhammad and Amir Sulaiman Shah, and the left under some renowned leaders. Amir Shah Malik and other officers with the centre began the attack. When the cries of our men and the noise of our drums reached them, the courage of the infidels failed. In their terror they fled for refuge to [p. 138] the mountains, but they were pursued and many were slain. A few who, half-dead, escaped the slaughter were scattered abroad. All their property and goods became the spoil of the victors. The country having thus been cleansed from the pollution of infidels, the army returned back on the same day and recrossed the Ganges. Then Timur returned thanks for his victories, after which he mounted his horse and marched five kos down the river and there encamped."

"It now occurred to me that I would cross over the Jumna with a small party of horse to examine the palace of Jahan-numa, and to reconnoitre the ground on which a battle might be fought. So I took an escort of 700 horsemen clad in armour and went off. I sent on ‘Ali Sultan Tawachi and Junaid Bur-uldai as an advance guard. Crossing the Jumna I reached Jahan-numa and inspected [p. 51] the whole building, and I discovered a plain fit for a battlefield. ‘Ali Sultan and Junaid, my advance-guard, each brought in a man belonging to the van-guard of the enemy. ‘Ali Sultan’s prisoner was named Muhammad Salaf. When I had interrogated him about the matters of Sultan Mahmud and Mallu Khan, I ordered him to be put to death as an augury of good. My scouts now brought me information that Mallu Khan with 4,000 horsemen in armour, 5000 infantry, and twenty-seven fierce war elephants fully accoutred, had come out of the gardens of the city and had drawn up his array. I left Saiyid Khwajah and Mubashar Bahadur with 300 brave Turk horsemen on gray horses (sufaid sawar-i Turk) in the Jahan-numa and withdrew towards my camp. Mallu Khan advanced boldly towards Jahan-numa and Saiyid Khwajah and Mubashar went forth to meet him. A conflict ensued, and my men fought valiantly. Immediately I heard of the action I sent Sunjak Bahadur and Amir Allah-dad with two regiments (kushun) to their support. As soon as practicable, they assailed the enemy with arrows and then charged them. At the second and third charge the enemy was defeated and fled towards Delhi in disorder. Many fell under the swords and arrows of my men. When the men fled, an extraordinary incident occurred; one of the great war elephants, called Bengalis, fell down and died. When I heard of it I declared it be a good omen. My victorious troops pursued the enemy to the vicinity of the city, and then returned to present themselves at my tent. I congratutated them on their victory and praised their conduct. Next day, Friday the 3rd of the month, I left that fort of Loni and marched to a position opposite to Jahan-numa where I encamped. The officers who had been sent out foraging brought in large quantities of grain and spoil."

"Timur’s resolution to retire from Hindustan. When Delhi and its territories had been purged from the foul pollution of gabrs and idolaters, Timur formed the resolve of returning home. On the 6th jumada-l awwal, 801 H., he departed from the banks of the Ganges. Orders were issued for the march and for the tawachis to bring up the heavy baggage. On the 6th a march of six kos was made, and then a halt was called; the baggage in this march being four kos in the rear. At this stage Timur learned that in the valleys of the Siwalik mountains there was collected a large number of Hindus ready for battle. Timur then gave orders, that the troops in charge of the baggage should march to these mountains. He himself having marched rapidly thither, encamped in the hills of Siwalik. In this march, Prince Khalil Sultan and Amir Shaikh Nuru-d din came up from the baggage and joined Timur…. On the same day an order was issued that Amir Jahan Shah, one of the officers of the left wing, who had been absent for a week in a raid upon the upper parts of the Jumna, should come in and take part in the operations against the infidels. In compliance with this order he hastened to the royal camp."

"One of these fortresses belonged to Shaikhu, a relation of Malik Shaikh Kukar,11 and he by means of a few Musulmans who dwelt there, had induced the inhabitants to make submission to Timur, and outwardly to admit their subjection. But proofs of their aversion and hatred soon become apparent, for when the ransom money was assessed upon them, they made all sorts of excuses and evasions. One of Timur’s officers thereupon resorted to a clever stratagem. He gave orders that cast-off clothes and old bows should be accepted in payment of the ransom, and as he offered a good price for these things of little value, they brought forth their damaged weapons of all descriptions and sold them for a high price. By this sharp device they were led to strip themselves of their arms, so that they had no weapons left. After this an imperial order was issued that forty persons should be sent in to be the servants (Khudam) of Hindu Shah, the treasurer, one of his majesty’s courtiers. The infidels resisted this order, and killed some Musulmans. It thus became necessary for the soldiers of the Faith to [p. 143] exact vengeance. They assaulted the fort and took it. 2,000 infidels were put to the sword, and the smoke of their consuming goods rose from their roofs to the sky."

"[p. 120] March to the east of Loni—Massacre of Hindu Prisoners. On the 3rd Rabi’u-s sani Timur marched from Jahan- numai, and pitched his camp to the eastward of Loni. All the princes and amirs who had been engaged in different expeditions assembled here under the royal banner (and Timur harangued them on the operations of war). On the same day Amir Jahan Shah and other amirs represented to Timur that from the time he crossed the Indus a hundred thousand Hindu prisoners, more or less, had been taken, and that these gabrs and idol-worshipers were kept in the camp. It was to be feared that in the day of battle with the forces of Delhi they might join the enemy. This opinion was confirmed by the joy which the prisoners had exhibited, when Mallu Khan marched against the imperial forces at Jahan- numai. Timur considered the point, and deeming the advice of his officers to be wise, he gave orders for all the Hindu prisoners to be put to death. Everyone who neglected to comply with this command was to be executed, and his wives, children, and goods were to become the property of the informer. In pursuance of this order 100,000 infidel Hindus were put to the sword. Maulana Nasiru-d din, a most distinguished ecclesiastic, had fifteen [p. 121] Hindus in his train, and he who had never caused a sheep to be slaughtered was obliged to have these fifteen Hindus killed. Timur also issued an order that one man out of every ten should be left in camp to guard the wives and children of the prisoners, and the captured cattle."

"Battle with the Sultan of Hindustan. Although the army of Timur was weak compared with this Indian army, still his soldiers did not rate their enemy very highly. But although they had fought in many battle, and overthrown many an enemy, they had never before encountered elephants. They had heard by report that the bodies of these elephants were so hard that no weapon would pierce them; that they could tear up strong trees with the wind (bad) of their trunks; that they could knock down strong houses with the pressure of their sides; and that in battle they could lift horse and horseman from the ground with their dragon-like trunk and raise them in the air. Exaggerations like these had raised apprehensions in the hearts of the soldiers. When Timur proceeded to appoint the places for the various officers of the court, he in his princely kindness, asked the learned doctors of the Law who accompanied the army in this invasion where he should place them. They, terrified with the stories they had heard of the elephants, answered: “In the same place as the ladies and women.” ... The soldiers of India fought bravely for their lives, but the frail insect cannot contend with the raging wind, nor the feeble deer against the fierce lion, so they were compelled to take to flight. Sultan Mahmud Khan, and those who fled with them, entered the city and closed the gates. Prince Khalil Sultan, of the right wing, not withstanding his youth, attacked one of the monster elephants, cut down his driver, and led the animal, as a husbandman drives a buffalo in the plough, to Timur."

"Flight of Sultan Mahmud and Mallu Khan: Capture of Delhi. On the 8’th Rabi’u-s sani, Timur hoisted his victorious flag on the walls of Dehli.... The standard of victory was raised and drums were beaten and music played to proclaim the conquest to the skies…. Maulana Nasiru-d din was ordered to go with other learned doctors and great men into the mosque on the Sabbath, and proclaim the name of the Sahib-kiran Amir Timur Gurgan in the khutba in the same way as the name of Firoz Shah and other Sultans had been proclaimed…. On the 16th of the month a number of soldiers collected at the gate of Delhi and derided the inhabitants. When Timur heard of this he directed some of the amirsto put a stop to it. But it was the divine pleasure to ruin the city and to punish the inhabitants, and that was brought about in this way. The wife of Jahan Malik Agha and other ladies went into the city to see the palace of the Thousand Columns (Hazar-sutun), which Malik Jauna had built in the Jahan-panah. The officers of the Treasury had also gone there to collect the ransom money. Several thousand soldiers, with orders for grain and sugar, had proceeded to the city. An order had been issued for the officers to arrest every nobleman who had fought against Timur and had fled to the city, and in execution of this order they were scattered about the city. When parties and bands of soldiers were going [p. 127] about the city, numbers of Hindus and gabrs in the cities of Dehli, Siri, Jahan-panah, and Old Dehli, seeing the violence of the soldiers,2 took up arms and assaulted them. Many of the infidels set fire to their goods and effects, and threw themselves, their wives and children, into the flames. The soldiers grew more eager for plunder and destruction. Notwithstanding the boldness and the struggles of the Hindus, the officers in charge kept the gates closed, and would not allow any more soldiers to enter the city, lest it should be sacked. But on that Friday night there were about 15,000 men in the city who were engaged from early eve till morning in plundering and burning the houses. In many places the impure infidel gabrs made resistance."

"‘God hath recommended to Mahomet to excite the Muslamans to make war on the enemies of their religion, because it is the most excellent of all actions, and Alcoran praises above all others, those who risk their fortunes and lives in such a war. ‘This was Timur’s only aim, from the beginning of his life to his death, but he particularly executed at this time by beginning a war which he had a long while projected.’"

"[p. 8] About this time there arose in my heart the desire to lead an expedition against the infidels, and to become a ghazi; for it had reached my ears that the slayer of infidels is a ghazi, and if he is slain he becomes a martyr. It was on this account that I formed this resolution, but I was undetermined in my mind whether I should direct my expedition against the infidels of China or against the infidels and polytheists of India. In this matter I sought an omen from the Kuran, and the verse I opened upon was this, “O Prophet, make war upon infidels and unbelievers and treat them with severity.”"

"I had been at Delhi fifteen days, which time I had passed in pleasure and enjoyment, holding royal Courts and giving great feasts. I then reflected that I had come to Hindustan to war against infidels, and my enterprize had been so blessed that wherever I had gone I had been victorious. I had triumphed over my adversaries, I had put to death some lacs of infidels and idolaters, and I had stained my proselyting sword with the blood of the enemies of the faith. Now this crowning victory had been won, and I felt that I ought not to indulge in ease, but rather to exert myself in warring against the infidels of Hindustan. Having made these reflections on the 22nd of Rabiu-l akhir, I again drew my sword to wage a religious war."

"“In the year AH 427 (AD 1036)… he himself marched with an army to India, to reduce the fort of Hansy… Herein he found immense treasure, and having put the fort under the charge of a trusty officer, he marched towards the fort of Sonput. Depal Hurry, the governor of Sonput, abandoned the place, and fled into the woods; but having no time to carry off his treasure, it fell into the conqueror’s hands. Musaood having ordered all the temples to be razed to the ground, and the idols to be broken proceeded in pursuit of Depal Hurry…”"

"‘Tīmūr’s only aim till his death was to excite the Mussalmans to make war on enemy of their religion, (. . .) and Al-Quran praises above all others, those who risk their fortunes and lives in such a war’."

"In the morning the soldiers who were outside, being unable to control themselves, went to the city and raised a great disturbance. On that Sunday, the 17th of the month, the whole place was pillaged, and several palaces in Jahan-panah and Siri were destroyed. On the 18th the like plundering went on. Every soldier obtained more than twenty persons as slaves, and some brought as many as fifty or a hundred men, women and children as slaves out of the city. The other plunder and spoils were immense, gems and jewels of all sorts, rubies, diamonds, stuffs and fabrics of all kinds, vases and vessels of gold and silver, sums of money in ‘ala’i tankas, and other beyond all computation. Most of the women who were made prisoners wore bracelets of gold or silver on their wrists and legs and valuable rings upon their toes. Medicines and perfumes and unguents, and the like, of these no one took any notice. On the 19th of the month Old Dehli was thought of, for many infidel Hindus had fled thither and taken refuge in the great mosque, where they prepared to defend themselves. Amir Shah Malik and Ali Sultan Tawachi, with 500 [p. 128] trusty men, proceeded against them, and failing upon them with the sword despatched them to hell. High towers were built with the heads of the Hindus, and their bodies became the food of ravenous beasts and birds. On the same day all Old Delhi was plundered. Such of the inhabitants as had escaped alive were made prisoners. For several days in succession the prisoners were brought out of the city and every amir of a tumam or kushun took a part of them under his command. Several thousand craftsmen and mechanics were brought out of the city, and under the command of Timur some were divided among the princes, amirs, and aghast who had assisted in the conquest, and some were reserved for those who were maintaining the royal authority in other parts. Timur had formed the design of building a Masjid-i jami in Samarkand, his capital, and he now gave orders that all the stonemasons should be reserved for that pious work…."

"On Tuesday I marched six kos and the heavy baggage was now four kos distant, I now learned that an immense number of infidels had collected in the Siwalik hills. Upon inquiring into the nature of these hills, I was informed that the people of Hindustan compute this mountain region at one lac and the fourtli part of a [p. 80] lac.9 It has narrow and strong valleys (darra), in which the infidels had assembled. When I received this information I immediately ordered the troops, with the baggage, to march towards the Siwalik hills, and I, myself, proceeded in that direction. Marching in the evening and into the night, I accomplished the five kos, and then encamped in the hills. At this halt Prince Khalil Sultan and Amir Shaikh Nuru-d din, who had been with the baggage, and to whom I had issued my order, came up. When I was seated on my cushion of royalty, with all the princes and amirs around me, Amir Sulaiman Shah, Amir Shah Malik, Amir Shaikh Nuru-d din and other amirs, rose from their places, and, coming forward, bowed their knees before me and said: “So long as we, your servants, are able to move hand and foot, we will execute your orders, but what necessity is there for our great amir to take all this toil and hardship upon himself, and that he should now order us to march against the infidels of the Siwalik and to rout and destroy them?”"

"The Sultan takes the Fort of Hansi On Saturday, the 14th, of Safar, the Amir had recovered, and held a darbar, and on Tuesday the 17th, he left the Jailam, and arrived at the fort of Hansi on Wednesday, the 9th of Rabi’u-l awwal, and pitched his camp under the fort, which he invested. Fights were constantly taking place in a manner that could not be exceeded for their severity. The garrison made desperate attempts at defence, and relaxed no effort. In the victorious army the slaves of the household behaved very gallantly, and such a virgin fort was worthy of their valour. At last, mines were sprung in five places, and the wall was brought down, and the fort was stormed by the sword on Monday, ten days before the close of Rabi’u-l awwal. The Brahmans and other higher men were slain, and their women and children were carried away captive and all the treasure which was found was divided amongst the army. The fort was known in Hindustan as “The Virgin,” as no one yet had been able to take it."

"My great officers told me that the inhabitants of Hindustan were infidels and unbelievers. In obedience to the order of Almighty God I determined on an expedition against them, and I issue orders to the amirs of mature years, and the leaders in war, to come before me, and when they had come together I questioned the assembly as to whether I should invade Hindustan or China, and said to them, “By the order of God and the Prophet it is incumbent upon me to make war upon these infidels and polytheists.” Throwing themselves upon their knees they all wished me good fortune. I demanded of the warrior chieftains whether I should direct my expedition against the infidels of Hindustan or China. At first they repeated fables and wise sayings, and then said, in the country of Hindustan there are four defences, and if anyone invading this extensive country breaks down these four defences, he becomes the conqueror of Hindustan."

"What Gandhi had not achieved in decades of campaigning, Bose’s INA achieved postumously in less than two years: making the British decide to quit India. And this, in fact, without firing too many bullets: if you radiate power, you often don’t have to use it. The court historians have always downplayed the role of the INA and attributed the merit for the achievement of independence to the Mahatma."

"On the following day, the 14th Jumada-l awwal, I crossed the river Jumna with the baggage, and encamped in another part of the Siwalik hills. Here I learned that in this part of the Siwalik there was a rajah of great rank and power, by name Ratan Sen. His valley (darra) was [p. 83] more lofty and more narrow, and his forces more numerous than those of Raja Bahruz. The mountains around are exceedingly lofty, and the jungles and woods remarkably thick, so that access to the valley was impossible except by cutting through the jungle. When I understood these facts about Ratan Sen, I felt my responsibilities as a warrior of the faith, and I was unwilling that the night should pass in ease; so I issued a summons for the attendance of the amirs and other officers. When they were all present, I directed them to prepare their men for battle, and that they should carry hatchets and bills, etc., for clearing away the jungle. I directed some thousands of torches to be lighted, and the drums of departure to be sounded. So at night I mounted my horse, and when I reached the jungle, I ordered my warriors to cut away the jungle, and make a way through. They proceeded to execute my order, and all night long they were occupied in clearing a passage. I went on to the front, and as morning broke I had traversed twelve kos by the way that had been pierced through the jungle. When I emerged from the jungle, the dawn appeared, and I alighted from my horse and said my. morning prayers. Then I again mounted, and on the morning of the 15th, I found myself between two mountains, one the Siwalik mountain, the other the Kuka mountain. This was the valley (darra), and it was exceedingly strong. The hills on both sides raised their heads to the clouds. In the front of this valley Raja Ratan Sen had drawn out his forces, as numerous as ants and locusts. There he had taken his stand, prepared for battle with an advance-guard, a right wing and left wing, in regular martial array."

"The first defence consists of five large rivers, which flow from the mountains of Kashmir, and these rivers unite in their course, and passing through the country of [p. 9] Sindh flow into the Arabian Sea, and it is not possible to cross them without boats and bridges. The second defence consists of woods and forests and trees, which, inter-weaving stem with stem and branch with branch, render it very difficult to penetrate into that country. The third defence is the soldiery, and landholders, and princes, and Rajas of that country, who inhabit fastnesses in those forests, and live there like wild beasts. The fourth defence consists of the elephants, for the rulers of that country in the day of battle equipping elephants in mail, put them in the van of their army, and place great confidence in them, and they have trained them to such a pitch that, lifting with their trunks a horse with his rider and whirling him in the air, they will dash him to the ground."

"At this place information was brought to me that fifteen kos off, up the river, and near the mountains, there was a place in which there was the image of a cow carved out of stone, and that the river (ab) ran from its mouth. In the belief of the people of Hindustan the source of the river Ganges was in this same mountains. The Hindu infidels worship the Ganges, and once every year they come on pilgrimage to this place8 which they consider the source of the river, to bathe and to have their heads and beards shaved. They believe these acts to be the means of obtaining salvation and securing future reward. They dispense large sums in charity among those who wear the Brahmanical thread, and they throw money into the river. When infidels die in distant parts, their bodies are burned, and the ashes are brought to this river and are thrown into it. This they look upon as a means of sanctification. When I learned these facts, I resolved to war against the infidels of this place, so that I might obtain the merit of overthrowing them."

"Information was also brought to me that all the men whom I had defeated in the valley of Kutila, before coming hither, had not been killed. The day having [p. 78] drawn to a close, many had escaped and were hiding in the thickets and broken ground. Neither had all their property been plundered. So I resolved to go again next day to that valley, and to put all the surviving infidels to death. At dawn on the 5th Jumada-l awwal I said my morning prayer, and started with a suitable force for the valley of Kutila, which lies at the foot of a lofty imountain and on the banks of the Ganges. During the night all the gabrs who had been scattered reassembled under their chiefs, and as they had no place of refuge more secure, they resolved that if the Musulmans returned, they would fight till they died. So they were prepared for battle. When I approached the darra I made the following disposition of my forces for conquering the infidels. I placed my right wing under Prince Pir Muhammad Jahangir, and Amir Sulaiman Shah. The left wing I gave into the charge of several amirs of tumans. I gave the command of the advance to Amir Shah Malik, and I kept the centre under my own orders. Upon entering the valley the infidels at first, having drawn up their forces, put on a bold appearance and advanced to the attack. I restrained the braves of my advance-guard, and of the right and left wings, and having massed them together, charged the enemy, shouting aloud our war-cry until the hills and valleys resounded. The sounds of the kettle-drums and other warlike instruments fell upon the battle field, and at the first and second charge dismay seized upon the enemy, and they took to flight. My brave men displayed great courage and daring; they made their swords their banners, and exerted themselves in slaying the foe. They slaughtered many of the infidels, and pursued those who fled to the mountains. So many of them were killed that their blood ran down the mountains and the plain, and thus (nearly) all were sent to hell. The few who escaped, wounded, weary, and half-dead, sought refuge in the defiles of’ the hills. Their property and goods, which [p. 79] exceeded all computation, and their countless cows and buffalos, fell as spoil into, the hands of my victorious soldiers."

"When I was satisfied with the destruction I had dealt out to the infidels, and the land was cleansed from the pollution of their existence, I turned back victorious and triumphant, laden with spoil. On that same day I crossed the Ganges. and said my mid.day prayers in the congregation on the bank of that river. I prostrated myself in humble thanks to God, and afterwards again mounting my horse, marched five miles down the river and then encainped. It now occurred to my mind that I had marched as a conqueror from the river Sind to Dehli, the capital of the kings of India. I had put the infidels to the edge of the sword on both sides of my route, and had scoured the land; I had seized upon the throne of the kings of India; I had defeated Sultan Mahmud, the king of Delhi, and triumphed over him; I had crossed the rivers Ganges and Jumna, and I had sent many of the abominable infidels to hell, and had purified the land from their foul existence. I rendered thanks to Almighty God that I had accomplished my undertaking, and had waged against the infidels that holy war I had resolved upon: then I determined to turn my course towards Samarkand, my capital and paradise. On the 6th of the month I mounted and proceeded towards the heavy baggage, and having travelled several kos, I encamped, and sent some yurutchis (quarter-masters) to go and bring up the baggage."

"Some of the nobles said in reply that Sultan Mahmud Subuktigin conquered the country of Hindustan with 30,000 horse, and established his own servants as rulers of that region, and carried off many thousand loads of gold and silver and jewels from that country, besides subjecting it to a regular tribute, and is our amir inferior to Sultan Mahmud? No; thanks to Almighty God, today a 100,000 valiant Tatar horsemen wait at the stirrup of our amir; if he determines upon this expedition Almighty God will give him victory, and he will become a ghazi and mujahid before God, and we shall be attendants on an amir who is a ghazi, and the army will be contented and the treasury rich and well filled, and with the gold of Hindustan our amir will become a conqueror of the world and famous among the kings of earth."

"It was represented to me that in this country there was a certain zamindar, by name Nusrat, of the tribe of Khokhar, who, having established himself with two thousand bloodthirsty soldiers in a fortress on the bank of a lake, breathed out defiance and rebellion…I immediately marched to attack this Nusrat Khokhar… When I arrived at the heavy swampy ground on the bank of the lake, where the God-forsaken Nusrat had taken up his position, I found that he was there with his two thousand men drawn up all ready to receive me…Nusrat himself fell among the slain, but it was not known how he had been killed, or whether he effected his escape. My victorious troops entered and set fire to the residence of Nusrat Khokhar, and having plundered the wealth and property of those Indians and taking an immense booty of’ flocks, herds, buffaloes, etc., returned to my presence."

"One of these eight forts belonged to a chief named Shaikha, a relation of Malik Shaikh Kukar. The people of the fort made some Musulmans who were dwelling amongst them their meditators, and sent offers of submission and service. But I saw looks of deception and treachery in the faces of the people of the fort. When my ministers had settled the amount of the ransom money, and the officers proceeded to collect it, these bad people evaded payment. On being informed of this, I gave orders that all kinds of articles should be taken at a good price instead of money and specie (jins)."

"As President of the Akademi, I may tell you quite frankly that I would not like the Prime Minister to interfere with my work."

"Sahitya Akademi held a place of pride in the world of Indian literature. There was no comparable institution at that time. Every Indian writer wanted to be connected to it in some way or the other."

"I like Sahitya Akademi were not able to live up to the original mandates set out by their founding fathers."

"The Charan was not the proverbial strife monger between rival clans adding fuel to the fire of fray on a point of honour; he was rather an agent of peace in the feud-torn land of the Rajputs. The typical Charan of Rajputana was fearless of speech, true to his word unto death, kindly and charitable to all, and genuinely devoted to his country's good and the welfare of the Kshatriyas particularly. The Charan, though as sensitive and proud as the Rajput, excelled the Rajput in humane virtues, moral courage and political morality. His weapon against the Rajput was only his moral force backed by superstition; namely, the threat to kill himself and thereby bring upon the obdurate Rajput the wrath of gods. The Charan was classed with "the cow and the Brahman," whose slaughter was forbidden to the Rajput. Next to the Rajput the Charan only enjoyed the privilege of giving sarna (protection) under his roof. When rival septs living in neighbourhood indulged in civil feuds, both sides would send their women and children to the houses of the Charans, which were a haven of refuge in a demilitarised zone as it were though within the striking distance of skirmishes. Thus the inviolability of the Charan's home saved the seed of the clan when its adults, were killed in insane feuds. A single determined Charan rushing in between the ranks of fighting warriors sometimes stopped blood-shed. If the exhortation of the well-wishing Charan went unheeded, he would kill himself with his katar in living faith that no Rajput would dare to cross the ban of Charan's blood. This was no fiction, but a long-established institution in the code of honour and morality barked by religious awe in that land of eternal vendetta."

"Singhasan is the ancient term for the Hindu throne, signifying ‘the lion-seat.’ Charans, bards, who are all Maharajas, ‘great princes,’ by courtesy, have their seats of the hide of the lion, tiger, panther, or black antelope."

"The Charans are the sacred order of these regions; the warlike tribes esteem the heroic lays of the bard more than the homily of the Brahman. The Charans are throughout reverenced by the Rathors, and hold lands, literally, on the tenure of ‘an old song’."

"Marla is an excellent township, inhabited by a community of Charans, of the tribe Kachhela, who are Banjaras (carriers) by profession, though poets by birth. The alliance is a curious one, and would appear incongruous, were not gain the object generally in both cases. It was the sanctity of their office which converted our Bardais into Banjaras, for their persons being sacred, the immunity extended likewise to their goods, and saved them from all imposts; so that in process of time they became the free-traders of Rajputana. I was highly gratified with the reception I received from the community, which collectively advanced to me at some distance from the town. The procession was headed by the village-band, and all the fair Charanis, who, as they approached, gracefully waved their scarfs over me, until I was fairly made captive by the muses of Marla! It was a novel and interesting scene: the manly persons of the Charans, clad in the flowing white robe, with the high loose folded turban inclined on one side, from which the mala, or chaplet, was gracefully suspended; the Naiks, or leaders, with their massive necklaces of gold, with the image of the pitrideva (manes) depending therefrom, gave the whole an air of opulence and dignity. The females were uniformly attired in a skirt of dark brown camlet, having a bodice of light-coloured stuff, with gold ornaments worked into their fine black hair; and all had the favourite churis, or rings of hathi-dant (elephant’s tooth), covering the arm, from the wrist to the elbow, and even above it. Never was there a nobler subject for the painter in any age or country; it was one which Salvator Rosa would have seized, full of picturesque contrasts: the rich dark tints of the female attire harmonizing with the white garments of their husbands; but it was the mien, the expression, the gestures, denoting that though they paid homage they expected a full measure in return. And they had it; for if ever there was a group which bespoke respect for the natural dignity of man and his consort, it was the Charan community of Marla."

"Even the ruthless Turk, Jamshid Khan, set up a protecting tablet in favour of the Charans of Marla, recording their exemption from dand contributions, and that there should be no increase in duties, with threats to all who should injure the community. As usual, the sun and moon are appealed to as witnesses of good faith, and sculptured on the stone. Even the forester Bhil and mountain Mer have set up their signs of immunity and protection to the chosen of Hinglaj; and the figures of a cow and its kheri (calf), carved in rude relief, speak the agreement that they should not be slain or stolen within the limits of Marla."

"Whatever might be his origin, the Charan and the Rajput in historical times are found inseparable like body and soul. In the social fabric of Rajputana, the Charan occupies an intermediate position between the Brahman and the Rajput, and in character, he combines the characteristics of the Rajput with those of the Brahman. The Charan was the esteemed and faithful companion of the Rajput, sharing his ammal(opium) and half of his loaf in adversity, and receiving his extravagant bounty in prosperity. He followed his client chief on horseback to the thickest of fight, where the poetic fire of his gert of old gave a Rajput "the strength of ten" on the field of carnage. The post of honour at - the main gate of the princely castle belonged to the premier Charan, who haughtily demanded his neg there from bridegroom's party, and whose privilege it was to open that gate on the foe in times of sally and receive the first blow of hostile sword."

"Monuments to Warriors—Dabhi is the line of demarcation between Mewar and Bundi, being itself in the latter State, in the district of Loecha,—dreary enough! It produces, however, rice and makkai, or Indian corn, and some good patches of wheat. We passed the cairns, composed of loose stones, of several Rajputs slain in defending their cattle against the Minas of the Kairar. I was particularly struck with that of a Charan bard, to whose memory they have set up a paliya, or tombstone, on which is his effigy, his lance at rest, and shield extended, who most likely fell defending his tanda."

"In them we have a combination of the traditional characteristics of the Brahmin and the Kshatriyas. Like the Brahmins, they adopted literary pursuits and accepted gifts. Like the Rajput, they worshipped Shakti and engaged in military activities. They stood at the front gate of the fort to receive the first blow of the sword."

"The Charans of Marwar have also played an important role in hours of need. According to the Achaldaskhichi-Vachanika Charan Magha, Sadau and Napau girded their loins against Muslim arms. In the year 1615 A.D., Narhar Charan fell fighting in the action of Sur Singh against Kishan Singh of Kishangarh. In the famous field of Dharmat in 1658 A.D., Jagmal Khadiya made his end as a valiant warrior. In the battle of Delhi when Durgadas planned the rescue of Ajit Singh, Charan Sandu and Mishan Ratan distinguished themselves as martyrs for the cause of their land. Charan Jogidas, Mishan Bharmal, Sarau, Asal Dhanu and Vithu Kanau were among the chosen brave warriors who escorted prince Akbar through his way to Shambhaji’s court."

"The Charans - In between the social order of the Rajputs and the status of the Brahmans there is a caste of Charans which exercises a great respectability and influence in Rajasthan. The speciality of the caste is that it combines in its character the characteristics of Rajputs and Brahmans in an adequate manner. In literary pursuit and receiving gifts from the Rajputs a Charan approximated himself to a Brahman. As regards taking of flesh, drinking of liquor, worshipping of Sakti and engaging in war he resembled a Rajput. He was an equal partner of his Rajput chief both in war and peace."