History Of India

"Late in the afternoon of the same day [14th February, 1843] I rode through the city, to the ruins of the palace of the Sultan Feroze, situated a few hundred steps without the south gate. On the plateau of this palace is the celebrated Feroze-Cotelah, or column. It is one of those columns which the pious Fabian speaks of, in his travells 1400 years ago, and of which there is still one in the fort of Allahabad, and three others in North Behar, one in Terai, near to the frontiers of Nepaul, the second not far from Bettiah, and the third on the river Gandaki. They have all the same inscriptions, in the ancient Pali, or Deva Magadhi language, and the Feroze-Cotelah has, also, inscriptions in Persian and Sanscrit. The learned James Princep succeeded in deciphering that in the Pali language. It is an edict of As-o-ko [Ashoka], the Bhoodist king of all India, who lived from 325 to 288 B.C., forbidding the destruction of living animals, and enforcing the observance of Bhoodism [Buddhism]. The Feroze-Cotelah consists of one piece of brown granite; it is ten feet in circumference, and, gradually tapering towards the summit, rises to the height of 42 feet. It is embedded in the platform of the completely ruined palace. The sun was nearly setting when I arrived before these extensive ruins: I tied my horse to a portion of the standing wall, and clambered over ponderous arches and porticoes up to the plateau. On this spot, standing before a monument more than two thousand years old, which reminded me of three great epochs of the history of India, that of the Bhoodists, of the Brahmins, and of the Moguls, surrounded by ruins, extending further than the eye could reach, with a view of Delhi, whose minarets and domes were gilded by the setting sun, – those times and nations could not fail to rise in a magic picture before my mind."

"How far Gandhi’s fast had any salutary effect on the communal relations may be judged by the fact that four days after Gandhi began his fast there was a serious communal riot at Shahjahanpur in which the military had to intervene and 9 were killed and about 100 injured. On October 8 when Gandhi broke his fast, there were serious communal riots at Allahabad, Kanchrapara near Calcutta and at Sagar and Jubbulpore in C.P."

"These communal riots may be justly regarded as an outward manifestation of that communal spirit which grew in intensity throughout the nineteenth century and at last drove the Hindus- and Muslims into two opposite camps in politics. The ground, was prepared by the frankly communal outlook of the Muslims, typified by the Wahabi Movement and the Aligarh Movement. The situation was rendered worse by the policy of Divide and Rule adopted by the British Government with the definite object’ of playing one community against the other. The spectre of communalism which haunted Indian politics even at the close of the nineteenth century was destined to grow in size and volume as years rolled by. The cloud that was no bigger than a man's, hand in 1900 soon overcast the whole sky and brought rain, thunder and storm which drenched the whole country with blood and tears in less than half a century. (440)"

"When we remember their wonderful military success in other parts of the world, the comparatively insignificant results the Arabs achieved in India certainly stand out in marked contrast. The cause of this, however, does not lie in the religious and social peculiarities of India as old historians like Elphinstone vainly attempted to establish. The cause lies undoubtedly in the superior military strength and state-organisation of the Indians as compared with most other nations of the time. However incredible this might appear in the light of subsequent events, this is the plain verdict of history. page 175"

"Contrary to the current notion that the Arab conquest of Sind was an unimportant episode in the history of India and affected merely the fringe of the subcontinent, we should stress the great commercial importance of this province. Sind was the hinge of the In­dian Ocean trade as well as the overland pass way."

"The conquest of Sindh opened a new chapter in the history of South Asia. Muslims had ever lasting effects on their existence in the region. [. . . .] For the first time the people of Sindh were introduced to Islam, its political system and way of the government. The people here had seen only the atrocities of the Hindu Rajas. [. . . .] The people of Sindh were so much impressed by the benevolence of Muslims that they regarded Muhammad bin-Qasim as their savior. [. . . .] Muhammad bin-Qasim stayed in Sindh for over three years. On his departure from Sindh, the local people were overwhelmed with grief."

"[Karashima] cautions against the ‘mechanical application of the concept of feudalism in the South Indian context as has been done by scholars like D.N. Jha.’ He points out the many fallacies in their argument and observes that the number of villages granted by rulers to Brahmins and temples was decisively in minority and also says ‘it seems too hasty to take royal grants of villages as an evidence for a prevalence of feudalism or serfdom, unless we study the conditions of the non-grant villages’."

"Sharma also focused strongly on bringing in a stage of feudalism on European model in the post-Gupta period. Sharma’s feudalism theory falls through for many clear reasons. The land-grant inscriptions of the kind Sharma mentions continue to occur in Rajasthan till the 17th/18th century and in the dynastic contexts mentioned by Sharma their number over a period of about 400 years is reputedly no more than 33, an insignificant number to build up an all-India stage of development. What is also ignored is the fact that such grants of land to Brahmins fall in line with a well-known Hindu ritual behaviour of granting Brahmins land on auspicious days after taking ritual bath. More importantly, KP Jayaswal demonstrated in Hindu Polity that the kings of ancient India were not the owners of the kingdom’s land. This land belonged to the individual owners. Many 19th century British administrators also supported this contention. The point is that the kings of ancient India did not have the legal right to distribute lands among a separate class of retainers and thus it was impossible for them to generate a class of feudal barons based on such donations. In the writings of Sharma’s associates, one notes the use of such terms as ‘early mediaeval’, ‘state formation’ and ‘legitimisation’ (of monarchy). The term ‘early mediaeval’ has been loosely used for a long time but the basic politics of this use in recent times is to suggest the existence of an ‘early mediaeval’ Hindu India merging smoothly into the ‘mediaeval’ Muslim India, thus obviating the drastic difference between the two."

"The rulers of India, whether Turks, Pathans, or Mughals, used Islamic vocabulary to legitimise their rule in the eyes of their Muslim chiefs and the ‘ulamā. Amīr Taimūr (1336–1405), the Turco-Mongol conqueror who attacked India in 1397–99 with legendary cruelty and devastation, uses purely religious language in defense of his action in his memoir Malfūẓāt-e-Taimūrī."

"What Gandhi had not achieved in decades of campaigning, Bose’s INA achieved postumously in less than two years: making the British decide to quit India. And this, in fact, without firing too many bullets: if you radiate power, you often don’t have to use it. The court historians have always downplayed the role of the INA and attributed the merit for the achievement of independence to the Mahatma."

"The Japanese encountered resistance from some indigenous peoples, to be sure, and not only from those ethnic groups and elites that had done relatively well under Western colonial rule. The overwhelming majority of Indians showed no interest in the kind of liberation the Japanese had in mind for them. In the Philippines the peasant Hukbalahap movement waged a guerrilla war against them; in Burma the Karen and Kachin hill tribes also resisted Japanese rule. Nevertheless, the Japanese had no difficulty in finding collaborators among both anti-European nationalists and opportunists. Indian nationalists had not forgotten the 1919 Amritsar Massacre; it was in March 1940 that Udham Singh assassinated Sir Michael O'Dwyer, who had been Lieutenant-Governor of the Punjab at that time. Though the majority of Congress leaders eschewed collaboration with the Japanese - in practice, 'Quit India' meant neutrality, albeit with a great deal of circumlocution - Subhas Chandra Bose enthusiastically hailed 'the end of the British Empire' and called on Indians to join the Axis side. Around 3,500 answered the initial call from Berlin of the self-proclaimed Netaji ('leader') to form an Indian Army of Liberation, most of them Indians who had been taken prisoner by the Germans in North Africa. When he reached Asia - having travelled by U-boat from Kiel to Sumatra - Bose was able to recruit a further 45,000 men (again mostly prisoners from Singapore and elsewhere) to his Indian National Army and the Axis cause."

"I now held a Court. I issued a summons to the princes, amirs, nuyans, commanders of tumans, of thousands and of hundreds, and to the braves of the advance-guard. They all came to my tent. All my soldiers were brave veterans, and had used their swords manfully under my own eyes. But there were none that had seen so many fights and battles as I had seen, and no one of the amirs or braves of the army that could compared with me in the amount of fighting I had gone through, and the experience I had gained. I therefore gave them instructions as to the mode of carrying on war; on making and meeting attacks; on arraying their men; on giving support to each other; and on all the precautions to be observed in warring with an enemy. I ordered the amirs of the right wing and the left wing, of the van and the centre, to take up their proper positions. Not to be too forward nor too backward, but to act with the utmost prudence and caution in their operations. When I had finished, the amirs and others testified their approbation, and, carefully treasuring up my counsel, they departed expressing their blessings and thanks."

"At this Court Amir Jahan Shah and Amir Sulaiman Shah, and other amirs of experience, brought to my notice that, from the time of entering Hindustan up to the present time, we had taken more than 100,000 infidels and Hindus prisoners, and that they were all in my camp. On the previous day, when the enemy’s forces made the attack upon us, the prisoners made signs of rejoicing, uttered imprecations against us, and were ready, as soon as they heard of the enemy’s success, to form themselves into a body, break their bonds, plunder our tents, and then to go and join the enemy, and so increase his [p. 53] numbers and strength. I asked their advice about the prisoners, and they said that on the great day of battle these 100,000 prisoners could not be left with the baggage, and that it would be entirely opposed to the rules of war to set these idolaters and foes of Islam at liberty. In fact, no other course remained but that of making them all food for the sword. When I heard these words I found them in accord with the rules of war, and I directly gave my command for the Tawachis to proclaim throughout the camp that every man who had infidel prisoners was to put them to death, and whoever neglected to do so should himself be executed and his property given to the informer. When this order became known to the ghazis of Islam, they drew their swords and put their prisoners to death. 100,000 infidels, impious idolaters, were on that day slain. Maulana Nasiru-d din ‘Umar, a counsellor and man of learning, who, in all his life, had never killed a sparrow, now, in execution of my order, slew with his sword fifteen idolatrous Hindus, who were his captives."

"[p. 63]On the l6th of the month some incidents occurred which led to the sack of the city of Delhi and to the slaughter of many of the infidel inhabitants. One was this. A party of fierce Turk soldiers had assembled at one of the gates of the city to look about them and enjoy themselves, and some of them laid violent hands upon the goods of the inhabitants. When I heard of this violence, I sent some amirs, who were present in the city, to restrain the Turks. A party of soldiers accompanied these amirs into the city. Another reason was that some of the ladies of my harem expressed a wish to go into the city and see the palace of Hazar-sutun(thousand columns) which Malik Jauna built in the fort called Jahan-panah. I granted this request, and I sent a party of soldiers to escort the litters of the ladies. Another reason was that Jalal Islam and other diwans had gone into the city with a party of soldiers to collect the contribution laid upon the city. Another reason was that some thousand troopers with orders for grain, oil, sugar, and flour, had gone into the city to collect these supplies. Another .reason was that it had come to my knowledge that great numbers of Hindu and gabrs, with their wives and children, and goods, and valuables, had come into the city from all the country round, and consequently I had sent some amirs with their regiments (kushun) into the city and directed them to pay no attention to the remonstrances of the inhabitants, but to seize and bring out these fugitives. For these several reasons a great number of fierce Turki soldiers were in the city. When the soldiers proceeded to apprehend the Hindus and gabrs, who had fled to the city, many of them drew their swords and offered resistance. The flames of strife were thus lighted and spread through the whole city fron Jahan-panah and Siri to Old Dehli, burning up all it reached. The savage Turks fell [p. 64] to killing and plundering. The Hindus set fire to their houses with their own hands, burned their wives and children in them, and rushed into the fight and were killed. The Hindus and gabrsof the city showed much alacrity and boldness in fighting. The amirs who were in charge of the gates prevented any more soldiers from going into the place, but the flames of war had risen too high for this precaution to be of any avail in extinguishing them. On that day, Thursday, and all the night of Friday, nearly 15,000 Turks were engaged in slaying, plundering, and destroying. When morning broke on the Friday, all the army, no longer under control, went off to the city and thought of nothing but killing, plundering, and making prisoners. All that day the sack was general. The following day Saturday, the 17th, all passed in the same and the spoil was so great than each man secured from fifty to a hundred prisoners, men, women and children. There was no man who took less than twenty. The other booty was immense in rubies, diamonds, garnets, pearls, and other gems; jewels of gold and silver; ashrafis, tankas of gold and silver of the celebrated ‘Alai coinage; vessels of gold and silver; and brocades and silks of great value. Gold and silver ornaments of the Hindu women were obtained in such quantities as to exceed all account. Excepting the quarter of the saiyids, the ‘ulama, and the other Musulmans, the whole city was sacked. The pen of fate had written down this destiny for the people of this city. Although I was desirous of sparing them I could not succeed, for it was the will of God that this calamity should fall upon the city."

"He then proceeded along the Sivalik Hills to Kangara , plundering and sacking that town and Jammu -- everywhere the inhabitants being slaughtered like cattle."

"On the following day, Sunday, it was brought to my knowledge that a great number of infidel Hindus had assembled in the Masjid-i jami’ of Old Dehli, carrying with them arms and provisions, and were preparing to defend themselves. Some of my people, who had gone that way on business were wounded by them. I immediately [p. 65] ordered Amir Shah Malik, and Ali Sultan Tawachi to take a party of men and proceed to clear the house of God from infidels and idolaters. They accordingly attacked these infidels and put them to death. Old Dehli then was plundered."

"I ordered that all the artisans and clever mechanics, who were masters of their respective crafts, should be picked out from among the prisoners and set aside, and accordingly some thousands of craftsmen were selected to await my command. All these I distributed among the princes and amirs who were present, or who were engaged officially in other parts of my dominions. I had determined to build a Masjid-i jami in Samarkand, the seat of my empire, which should be without a rival in any country; so I ordered that all builders and stone-masons should be set apart for my own especial service."

"By the will of God, and by no wish or direction of mine, all the three cities of Delhi, by name Siri, Jahan- panah, and Old Dehli, had been plundered. The khutba of my sovereignty, which is an assurance of safety and protection, had been read in the city. It was therefore my earnest wish that no evil might happen to the people of the place. But it was ordained by God that the city should be ruined. He therefore inspired the infidel inhabitants with a spirit of resistance, so that they brought on themselves that fate which was inevitable."

"On the following day, the 24th of the month, I marched to Panipat, where I encamped. I there found that in obedience to orders received from the ruler of Delhi the people had deserted all their dwellings and had taken flight. When the soldiers entered the fort they reported to me that they had found a large store of wheat, amounting to some thousand mans. I ordered it to be weighed to ascertain the real weight, and then to be distributed among the soldiers. When it was weighed it was found to amount to 10,000 mans of the great weight (sang-I kalan), or 160,000 of the legal standard (sang-i-shara’). On the following day I marched from Panipat six kos, and encamped on the banks of a river which is on the road. I marched from this place on Friday, the 26th of the month, and I gave orders that the officers and soldiers of my army should put on their armour, and that every man should keep in his proper regiment and place in perfect readiness. We reached a village called Kanhi-gazin and there encamped. I issued my commands that on the morrow, the 28th of the month, a force of cavalry should proceed on a plundering excursion against the palace of Jahan-numa, a fine building erected by Sultan Firoz Shah on the top of a hill by the banks of the Jumna, which is one of the large rivers of Hindustan. Their orders were to plunder and destroy and to kill every one whom they met. Next day, in obedience to my commands, the division marched and proceeded to the palace of Jahan-numa, which is situated five miles from Delhi. They plundered every village and place they came to, killed the men, and carried off all the valuables and cattle, securing a great booty. They then returned, bringing with them a number of Hindu prisoners, both male and female."

"On the 29th I again marched and reached the river [p. 49] Jumna. On the other side of the river I descried a fort and upon making inquiry about it, I was informed that it consisted of a town and fort, called Loni and that it was held by an officer named Maimun as kotwal on behalf of Sultan Mahmud. I determined to take that fort at once, and as pasture was scant where I was, on the same day I crossed the river Jumna. I sent Amir Jahan Shah and Amir Shah Malik and Amir Alla-dad to besiege the fort of Loni, and I pitched my camp opposite to the fort. They invested the fort which was under the command of the kotwal named Maimun. He made preparations for resistance. At this time a holy shaikh who dwelt in the town came out very wisely and waited upon me. Although the shaikh was greatly honoured by the people, still, they would not listen to his advice, but determined to fight rather than surrender to me. These people were Hindus and belonged to the faction of Mallu Khan. They despised the counsels of the venerable father and resolved to resist. When I was informed of it, I ordered all the amirs and soldiers to assemble and invest the fort. They accordingly gathered with alacrity round the fort, and in the course of one watch of the day they carried the place. It was situated in a doab between two rivers, one the Jumna, the other the Halin, the latter being a large canal, which was cut from the river Kalini and brought to Firozabad, and there connected with the Jumna by Sultan Firoz Shah. Many of the Rajputs placed their wives and children in their houses and burned them, then they rushed to the battle and were killed. Other men of the garrison fought and were slain, and a great many were taken prisoners. Next day I gave orders that the Musulman prisoners should be separated and saved, but that the infidels should all be despatched to hell with the proselyting sword. I also ordered that the houses of the saiyids, shaikhs and learned Musulmans should be preserved, but that all the other houses should be plundered [p. 50] and the fort destroyed. It was done as I directed and a great booty was obtained."

"The right wing I placed under the command of Prince Pir Muhammad Jahangir, Prince Rustam, Amir Sulaiman Shah and….; the left I gave to Sultan Mahamud Khan, Prince Khalil Sultan, Prince Sultan Husain, Amir Jahan Shah and…. Under my own direction I kept the great tumans, the tumans of San-sir5 extended over a distance of twenty kos. Being satisfied as to my disposition of the forces, I began my march to Delhi. On the 22nd of Rabl-ul awwal I arrived and encamped at the fort of the village of Aspandi. In answer to my enquiries about this place I found that Samana was distant seven kos. The people of Samana, and Kaithal, and Aspandi are all heretics, idolaters, ,infidels, and misbelievers.6 They had now set fire to their houses- and had fled with their children and propety, and effects, towards Delhi, so that the whole country was deserted. Next day, the 23rd of the month, I started from the fort of Aspandi, and after marching six kos arrived at the village of Tughlik-pur. I encamped opposite the fort bearing that name. The people of the fort on hearing of the approach of my army, had abandoned it, and had dispersed over the country. From the information supplied to me I learned that these people were called ( sanawi (fire-worshippers). Many of this perverse creed believe that there are two gods, one is called Yazdan, and whatever they have of good they believe to proceed from him. The other god they call Ahriman, and whatever sin and wickedness they are guilty of they consider Ahriman to be the author of. These misbelievers do not know that whatsoever there is of good or evil comes from God, and that man is the mere [p. 48] instrument of its execution. I ordered the houses of these heretics to be fired and their fort and buildings to be razed to the ground."

"When my heart was satisfied with the conquest of Loni, I rode away from thence on the 1st Rabi’u-l akhir to examine the fords of the Jumna, and proceeded along the bank of the river. When I came opposite the palace Jahan-numa, I found some places where the river was passable. At the time of midday prayer, I returned to the camp. I gave orders to the princes and amirs, and then held a council about the attack upon Delhi and the preparations against Sultan Mahmud."

"I had been at Dehli fifteen days, which time I had passed in pleasure and enjoyment, holding royal Courts and giving great feasts. I then reflected that I had come to Hindustan to war against infidels, and my enterprise had been so blessed that wherever I had gone I had been victorious. I had triumphed over my adversaries, I had put to death some lacs of infidels and idolaters, and I had stained my proselyting sword with the blood of the enemies of the faith. Now this crowning victory had been won, and I felt that I ought not to indulge in ease, but rather to exert myself in warring against the infidels of Hindustan.… …some of the reconnoitring party came in with the information that there was a large number of Hindus assembled in the valley of Kutila [Kupila, Hardwar?] on the side of the Ganges, having made that valley a place of refuge. I instantly mounted, and leaving the greater part (tamami) of my force to secure the spoil, I started off for the valley of Kutila with only five hundred horsemen. When I reached the place I found an immense number of gabrs assembled in the darra. Instantly I ordered Amir Shah Malik and Ali Sultan Tawachi to charge the enemy without paying the slightest heed to their numbers, although they were twenty to one. Spurring their horses, shouting their war-cry, and brandishing their swords, they fell upon the forces (afwaj) of the enemy like hungry lions upon a flock of sheep. At the first charge the ranks of the enemy were broken, and many of their men fell under the blows of the sword. God thus gave me victory with such a small band of followers over such a numerous host of the enemy. After many of them had been slain, those who escaped kept in the thickets and defiles (darraha), skulking like foxes and jackals. An immense booty was left, and my braves were busy in securing it… Again I mounted my steed; and as I did so intelligence was brought to me that in the valley (darra) of Kutila, two kos distant, a large number of infidels and gabrs had collected with their wives and children, and with property, goods, and cattle beyond all estimate. The road thither was arduous, through jungles and thickets. When I heard this my first thought was that I had been awake since midnight, I had travelled a long distance without any halt, and had surmounted many difficulties, I had won two splendid victories with a few brave soldiers, and I was very tired, I would therefore stop and take rest. But then I remembered that I had drawn my sword, and had come to Hind with the resolution of waging a holy war against its infidels, and so long as it was possible to fight with them, rest was unlawful for me. Although I had only a few amirs and a few soldiers with me, I placed my trust in God, and determined to attack the enemy… Pressing on with all haste I passed the jungles and thickets, and arrived in front of the infidels. After a slight resistance the enemy took to flight, but many of them fell under the swords of my soldiers. All the wives and children of the infidels were made prisoners, and their property and goods, gold, money and grain, horses, camels (shutur), cows and buffalos in countless numbers, fell as spoil into the hands of my soldiers. Satisfied with this rout of the enemy, I said the afternoon prayers in public in that desert, and I returned thanks to God for that I had fought three times with enemies outnumbering my men by ten and twenty to one, and in each battle I had gained a signal victory."

"After much discussion in the Council of War, where everyone had something to say and an opinion to offer, it appeared that the soldiers of my army had heard tales about the strength and prowess and appearance of the elephants of Hindustan. They had been told that in the fight one would take up a horseman and his horse with his trunk and hurl them in the air. These stories had been met by suitable answers from some of the bold troopers. The Council of War at length agreed that a plentiful supply of grain must first be secured, and stored in the fort of Loni as a provision for the army. After this was done, we might proceed to the attack of the fort and city of Delhi. When the Council was over, I ordered Amir Jahan Shah, Amir Sulaiman Shah, and other amirs to cross over the Jumna and to forage in the the environs of Delhi bringing off all the corn they could find for the use of the army."

"On the 9th of the month I despatched the baggage from Tohana, and on the same day I marched into the jungles and wilds, and slew 2,000 demon-like Jats. I made their wives and children captives, and plundered their cattle and property. Thus I delivered the country from the terror it had long suffered at the hands of the marauding Jats. On the same day a party of saiyids, who [p. 46] dwelt in the vicinity, came with courtesy and humility to wait upon me, and were very graciously received. In my reverence for the race of the prophet, I treated their chiefs with great honour. I gave them all valuable robes, and I appointed an officer to go to their abodes and protect them, so that none of my soldiers should do them any injury."

"It was again brought to my knowledge that these turbulent Jats were as numerous as ants or locusts, and that no, traveler or merchant passed unscathed from their hands. They had now taken flight, and had gone into jungles and deserts hard to penetrate. A few of them had been killed, but it was my fixed determination to clear from thieves and robbers every country that I subdued, so that the servants of God, and Musulmans and travellers might be secure from their violence. My great object in invading Hindustan had been to wage a religious war against the infidel Hindus, and it now appeared to me that it was necessary for me to put down these Jats and to deliver travelers from their hands. I consequently placed the care of the baggage and of all the plunder which had been gained in my victories in charge of Amir Sulaiman Shah, to convey it with the heavy baggage to the town of Samana."

"[p. 47]For my intended attack upon Delhi I arranged my forces in the following manner:"

"One of these eight forts belonged to a chief named Shaikha, a relation of Malik Shaikh Kukar. The people of the fort made some Musulmans who were dwelling amongst them their meditators, and sent offers of submission and service. But I saw looks of deception and treachery in the faces of the people of the fort. When my ministers had settled the amount of the ransom money, and the officers proceeded to collect it, these bad people evaded payment. On being informed of this, I gave orders that all kinds of articles should be taken at a good price instead of money and specie (jins)."

"[p. 88]When this was understood they brought forth all sorts of things and gave them over at a high valuation, so it came to pass that all the bows and arrows and swords that they possessed were surrendered instead of money. I now issued an order that forty of the Hindus of the fort should come out to serve Hindu Shah, my treasurer. Being of a disobedient rebellious spirit they resisted, paid no respect to my order, and even killed some of the Musulmans who were in the fort. Directly I heard this, I gave orders for the amirs with their respective forces to advance boldly against the fort. In execution of this order all my forces assembled en masseto storm the place. They assailed it on ever side, and fixing their scaling-ladders they mounted the walls and penetrated to the interior. The men of the garrison having been guilty of conduct worthy of death, were killed. Two thousand thus perished and were sent to hell. The women and children were made prisoners, and the buildings were leveled with the ground. By the favour and grace of God my heart had thus been gratified with the overthrow of the vile infidels of the Siwalik. I had subdued their strongholds, and there remained no other contumacious rai or raja to conquer."

"When my heart was satisfied with the overthrow of the rais and rajas and turbulent dwellers of these parts, on the 3rd Rabi-u-l awwal the drums of deparrture sounded; I mounted my horse, and, after marching fourteen kos, encamped on the borders of a tank, near which was a jungle full of grass. Ncxt day I again marched, and passing by the fort of Firoz I arrived at a town called Sirsah."

"When I made inquiries about the city of Sarsuti, I was informed that the people of the place were strangers to the religion of Islam, and they kept hogs in their houses and ate the flesh of those animals. When they heard of my arrival, they abandoned their city. I sent my cavalry in pursuit of them, and a great fight ensued. All these [p. 44] infidel Hindus were slain, their wives and children were made prisoners, and their property and goods became the spoil of the victors. The soldiers then returned, bringing with them several thousand Hindu women and children who became Muhammadans, and repeated the creed. Of all the braves who took part in this action, ‘Adi Bahadur Farrash was the only one who fell."

"It was represented to me that in this country there was a certain zamindar, by name Nusrat, of the tribe of Khokhar, who, having established himself with two thousand bloodthirsty soldiers in a fortress on the bank of a lake, breathed out defiance and rebellion…I immediately marched to attack this Nusrat Khokhar… When I arrived at the heavy swampy ground on the bank of the lake, where the God-forsaken Nusrat had taken up his position, I found that he was there with his two thousand men drawn up all ready to receive me…Nusrat himself fell among the slain, but it was not known how he had been killed, or whether he effected his escape. My victorious troops entered and set fire to the residence of Nusrat Khokhar, and having plundered the wealth and property of those Indians and taking an immense booty of’ flocks, herds, buffaloes, etc., returned to my presence."

"Since the 14th Jumada-l awwal, when I entered the Siwalik hills, I had fought the enemy several times, I had gained victories and captured forts. From that time to the 17th Jumada-l akhir, one month and two days, I had been engaged in fighting, slaying, and plundering the miscreant Hindus of those hills, until I arrived at the fort of Jammu. I reckoned that during those thirty-two days I had twenty conflicts with the enemy, and gained as many victories. I captured seven strong celebrated forts belonging to the infidels, which were situated two or three kos distance apart, and were the jewels and beauties of that region. The people of these forts and countries had formerly paid the jizya (poll-tax) to the Sultan of Hindustan; but for a long time past they had grown strong, and casting off their allegiance to those sovereigns, they no longer paid the jizya but indulged in all sorts of opposition."

"The left wing of my army, commanded by Amir Jahan Shah, had obtained no booty on the previous day, so I ordered his division to the front to battle with the infidels, and to capture spoil to compensate them for the deficiency of the previous day. I sent Sain Timur with a party of soldiers forward as an advance-guard, and then I followed. At breakfast time Sain Timur, the commander of the vanguard, sent to inform me that there was a very large force of infidels in front drawn up in order of battle. I instantly ordered Amir Jahan Shah, whom I had sent to the front with the forces of the left wing and the army of Khurasan, to attack the enemy. The amir, in obedience to my order, advanced and charged the enemy. At the very first charge the infidels were defeated and put to flight. The holy warriors, sword in hand, dashed among the fugitives, and made heaps of corpses. Great numbers were slain, and a vast booty in goods and valuables, and prisoners and cattle in countless numbers, fell into the hands of the victors, who returned triumphant and loaded with spoil."

"I did not wish the war to be of long continuance; so as soon as night was over and morning came, I arose to my devotions. I said the morning prayers in the congregation, and I repeated my private prayers, then I took the holy book, which I always carried with me, and sought a fal on the subject of the war. The verse which appeared was one in the CHAPTER — of the Bee. I immediately sought the interpretation of this verse from those who were present, and they replied that the manifest meaning of it was...I received this fal as a propitious indication, and acted in full reliance on its command and on the favour of God.…"

"The following day I rested in the town of Sarsuti, and on the next day, the 6th of the month, I marched eighteen kos, and came near the fort of Fath-abad, where I encamped. The people of Fath-abad also, by the suggestion of Satan, had fled from the town and taken refuge in the deserts and jungles. I despatched some commanders of regiments after them who overtook them and slew great numbers of them. They took all their property and goods, horses and cattle, and returned to camp laden with spoil. Next day I marched from Fath-abad, and passing by the fort of Rajab-pur, I halted in the vicinity of the fort of Ahruni. The people of this town and fort did not come out to meet me and make their submission so as to escape from the rigour of the army of Islam; so some savage Turks entered the town and began plundering. Some of the inhabitants who resisted they put to death; the others were made prisoners. The soldiers brought away great quantities of grain, and set fire to the houses and buildings of the town."

"[p. 85]Capture of Nagarkot (Kangra) When I entered the valley on that side of the Siwalik, information was brought to me about the town (shahr) of Nagarkot, which is a large and important town of Hindustan, and situated in these mountains. The distance was thirty kos but the road thither lay through jungles, and over lofty and rugged hills. Every rai and raja who dwelt in these hills had a large number of retainers. As soon as I learned these facts about Nagarkot and the country round, my whole heart was intent upon carrying the war against the infidel Hindus of that place, and upon subduing the territory. So I set spurs to my horse and wended my way thither."

"When I had inflicted this chastisement on the male-factors, Kamalu-d din,1 brother of Rao Dul Chain, and the Rao’s son were stricken with dismay. Although Dul Chain was in my camp, they fled into the fort and closed the gates. As soon as I heard of their proceedings, I ordered the Rao to be placed in confinement, and the flames of my wrath blazed high, I commanded my officers and men to direct their efforts to the reduction of the fort by breaching and scaling. When the garrison perceived my men advancing bravely to assault the fort, the Rao’s brother and son again raised the cry of alarm and distress .and begged for mercy. They put their swords upon their necks, came into my camp to make excuses for their foIly, and presented the keys of the fort to my officers. I spared their lives."

"A horseman belonging to the kushun of Amir Shaikh Nuru-d din and ‘Ali Sultan Tawachi now came galloping in to inform me that upon my left there was [p. 86] a valley in which an immense number of Hindus and gabrs had collected, and were crying out for battle. Vast herds of cattle and buffalos were grazing around them, in numbers beyond the reach of the imagination. As soon as I heard this, I proceeded to the place, and having said my midday prayers with the congregation on the way, I joined Amir Shaikh Nuru-d din, and I ordered him, with ‘Ali Sultan Tawachi, to march with their forces, against the enemy. In compliance with this order they went boldly forward, and by a rapid march came in sight of the infidels. Like a pack of hungry sharp-clawed wolves, they fell upon the flock of fox-like infidels, and dyed their swords and weapons in the blood of those wretches till streams of blood ran down the valley. I went to the front from the rear, and found the enemy flying on all sides, and my braves splashing their blood upon the ground. A party of the Hindus fled towards the mountain, and I taking a body of soldiers pursued them up that lofty mountain, and put them to the sword. After mounting to the summit I halted. Finding the spot verdant and the air pleasant, I sat myself down and watched the fighting and the valiant deeds my men were performing. I observed their conduct with my own eyes, and how they put the infidel Hindus to the sword. The soldiers engaged in collecting the booty, and cattle, and prisoners. This exceeded all calculation, and they returned victorious and triumphant. The princes and amirs and other officers came up the mountain to meet me, and to congratulate me on the victory. I had seen splendid deeds of valour, and I now promoted the performers and rewarded them with princely gifts. The enormous numbers of cows and buffalos that had been taken were brought forward, and I directed that those who had captured many should give a few to those soldiers who had got no share. Through this order, every man, small and great, strong and feeble, obtained a share of the spoil. I remained [p. 87] till evening on the mountain, and after saying evening prayer I came down. I encamped in the valley where there were running streams. Several times when I encamped in these mountains great numbers of monkeys came into the camp from the jungles and woods, both by night and day, and laid their claws upon whatever they could find to eat, and carried it off before the faces of the men. At night they stole their little articles and curiosities."

"Conquest of the Siwalik. On the10th Jumada-l awaal I mounted my horse and drew my sword, determined on fighting the infidels of the Siwalik. First I attended to the disposition of my forces. I gave the command of the right wing to Prince Pir Muhammad Jahangir and Amir Sulaiman Shah; and I placed the left wing under Prince Sultan Husain and Amir Jahan Shah. I sent forward Shaikh Nuru-d din and Amir Shah Malik in command of the advance-guard of the centre. When my arrangements were complete, we marched, and on approaching the valley, I ordered the drums to be beaten, the instruments to be sounded, and the war-cry to be raised, until the hills and valleys echoed with their sounds. I proceeded to the mouth of the darra where I alighted from my horse, and sent forward my amirs and soldiers. They all dismounted, and, girding up their loins, marched forward to the conflict, full of resolution and courage. The demon-like Hindus were lurking in places of ambush, and attacked my soldiers, [p. 82] but these retaliated with showers of arrows, and falling upon them with the sword forced their way into the valley. Then they closed with them, and fighting most bravely they slaughtered the enemy with sword, knife, and dagger. So many fell that the blood ran down in streams. The infidel gabrs were dismaywd at the sight, and took to flight. The holy warriors pursued them, and made heaps of slain. A few Hindus, in a wretched plight, wounded and half dead, escaped, and hid themselves in holes and caves. An immense spoil, beyond all compute, in money, goods and articles, cows and buffalos, fell into the hands of my soldiers. All the Hindu women and children in the valley were made prisoners. When I was fully satisfied with the defeat of the insolent infidels of the Siwalik, and with the victory I had gained, I returned triumphant, and encamped in the same place. This night I passed as a guest in the tents of Prince Pir Muhammad Jahangir. When morning came I ordered all the plunder that had fallen into the hands of my men to be collected, for I understood that some had obtained much and others little, and I had it all fairly divided. On that day, the 11th of the month, I marched and joined the heavy baggage. I encamped at the village of Bahrah, in the country of Miyapur. Next day I again marched, and accomplishing four kos halted at the village of Shikk Sar. An enormous quantity of plunder, goods and articles, prisoners and cattle, was now collected together with the heavy baggage, and the people of the army were very heavily laden; consequently it was difficult to march more than four or five kos in a day. On the 13th I encamped at the village of Kandar."

"On the following day, the 14th Jumada-l awwal, I crossed the river Jumna with the baggage, and encamped in another part of the Siwalik hills. Here I learned that in this part of the Siwalik there was a rajah of great rank and power, by name Ratan Sen. His valley (darra) was [p. 83] more lofty and more narrow, and his forces more numerous than those of Raja Bahruz. The mountains around are exceedingly lofty, and the jungles and woods remarkably thick, so that access to the valley was impossible except by cutting through the jungle. When I understood these facts about Ratan Sen, I felt my responsibilities as a warrior of the faith, and I was unwilling that the night should pass in ease; so I issued a summons for the attendance of the amirs and other officers. When they were all present, I directed them to prepare their men for battle, and that they should carry hatchets and bills, etc., for clearing away the jungle. I directed some thousands of torches to be lighted, and the drums of departure to be sounded. So at night I mounted my horse, and when I reached the jungle, I ordered my warriors to cut away the jungle, and make a way through. They proceeded to execute my order, and all night long they were occupied in clearing a passage. I went on to the front, and as morning broke I had traversed twelve kos by the way that had been pierced through the jungle. When I emerged from the jungle, the dawn appeared, and I alighted from my horse and said my. morning prayers. Then I again mounted, and on the morning of the 15th, I found myself between two mountains, one the Siwalik mountain, the other the Kuka mountain. This was the valley (darra), and it was exceedingly strong. The hills on both sides raised their heads to the clouds. In the front of this valley Raja Ratan Sen had drawn out his forces, as numerous as ants and locusts. There he had taken his stand, prepared for battle with an advance-guard, a right wing and left wing, in regular martial array."

"[p. 42]On the 1st Rabi’u-l awwal gave instructions to Amir Shaikh Naru-d din and Amir Allah-dad for realizing the ransom money, and sent them into the city. The rais and Rajputs and chiefs of the city did not act fairly in paying the ransom money although it was a matter in which honourable dealing was necessary. Contention and fighting arose between the collectors and the evil-minded rais. When intelligence of this reached my ears, I directed my brave fellows to punish the infidels. In obedience to the order, the soldiers pressed towards the fort, and fixing their scaling ladders and ropes to the battlements they carried the fort by escalade. The infidels and Musulmans in the fort now found their case desperate. The infidels shut up their wives and children in their houses, to which the set fire, and they and their families were burned altogether; those who called themselves Musulmans, but who had stayed from the Muhammadan fold, killed their wives and children with the sword, and then boldly facing death rushed together into the fight. My men entered the fort on all sides, and placing their swords and daggers fell upon the foe. The men of the garrison were young and vigorous, active and daring. They fought manfully and a desperate conflict ensued. Some of my renowned and brave men performed prodigies of valour, and received most frightful wounds. The amirs maintained their character, with their swords, and fought and strove with manly vigour. Amir Shaikh Nuru-d din maintained, on foot, a fierce conflict with the infidels, and many fell under the blows of his sword. Several of them joined and made a simultaneous assault on him. The amir was alone and they were many, so these demons in looks, and demons in temper seized him and were endeavouring to take him prisoner. Just at that critical moment Firoz Sistani and Auzan Mazid Baghdadi cut their way to the side of Nuru-d din, and after charging the infidels once and again, they forced them to fall back, and thus they [p. 43] rescued their comrades from the hands of the gabrs. So in all directions the brave warriors of Islam attacked the infidels with lion-like fury, until at length by the grace of God, victory beamed upon the efforts of my soldiers. In a short space of time all the people in the fort were put to the sword, and in the course of one hour the heads of ten thousand infidels were cut off. The sword of Islam was washed in the blood of the infidels, and all the goods and effects, the treasure and the grain which for many a long year had been stored in the fort became the spoil of my soldicrs. They set fire to the houses and reduced them to ashes, and they razed the buildings and the fort to the ground. When this victory had been accomplished I returned to my tent. All the princes and amir waited upon me to congratulate me upon the conquest and upon the enormous booty which had fallen into my hands. It was all brought out and I distributed it among my brave amirs and soldiers; I bestowed great gifts and rewards on Mazid Baghdadi and on Firoz Sistani who had rescuedd Amir Nuru-d din, and I promoted them to a hig1l rank."

"As soon as my eye fell upon the dispositions of Raja Ratan Sen, I ordered my warriors to shout their battle-cry aloud, and the drums and other instruments to be sounded. The noise reverberated through the hills, and filled the hearts of the infidels with dismay and trembling, [p. 84] so that they wavered. At this moment I ordered my forces to make one grand charge upon the infidels. At the first onset, the Hindus broke and fled, and my victorious soldiers pursued slashing their swords, killing many of the fugitives, and sending them to hell. Only a few of them escaped, wounded and dispirited, and hiding themselves like foxes in the woods, thus saved their lives. When the soldiers gave up killing the infidels, they secured great plunder in goods and valuables, prisoners and cattle. No one of theme had less than one or two hundred cows, and ten or twenty slaves—the other plunder exceeded all calculation. On this day Prince Pir Muhammad Jahangir and Amir Sulaiman Shah, with the right wing of the army, and Prince Sultan Husain and Amir Jahan Shah, with the left wing, returned and joined me. By my orders they had parted from me, and had penetrated the valleys on the right and left. They had encountered and routed many infidels, and had slain great numbers of them, but they had not gained so much spoil (as my division)."

"…information was brought to me that fifteen kos off, up the river, and near the mountains, there was a place in which there was the image of a cow, carved out of stone, and that the river (ab) ran from its mouth. In the belief of the people of Hindustan the source of the river Ganges was in this same mountain. The Hindu infidels worship the Ganges, and once every year they come on to this place [Hardwar], which they consider the source of the river, to bathe and to have their heads and beards shaved. They believe these acts to be the means of obtaining salvation and securing future reward. They dispense large sums in charity among those who wear the brahmanical thread, and they throw money into the river. When infidels die in distant parts, their bodies are burned, and the ashes are brought to this river and are thrown into it. This they look upon as a means of sanctification. When I learned these facts, I resolved to war against the infidels of this place, so that I might obtain the merit of overthrowing them… At dawn on the 5th Jumada-l awwal I said my morning prayer, and started with a suitable force for the valley of Kutita, which lies at the foot of a lofty mountain and on the banks of the Ganges. During the night all the gabrs who had been scattered reassembled under their chiefs, and as they had no place of refuge more secure, they resolved that if the Musulmans returned, they would fight till they died. So they were prepared for battle...My brave men displayed great courage and daring; they made their swords their banners, and exerted themselves in slaying the foe. They slaughtered many of the infidels, and pursued those who fled to the mountains. So many of them were killed that their blood ran down the mountains and the plain, and thus (nearly) all were sent to hell. The few who escaped, wounded, weary, and half dead, sought refuge in the defiles of the hills. Their property and goods, which exceeded all computation, and their countless cows and buffalos, fell as spoil into the hands of my victorious soldiers. When I was satisfied with the destruction I had dealt out to the infidels, and the land was cleansed from the pollution of their existence, I turned back victorious and triumphant, laden with spoil. On that same day I crossed the Ganges, and said my mid-day prayers in the congregation, on the bank of that river. I prostrated myself in humble thanks to God, and afterwards again mounting my horse, marched five miles down the river and then encamped. It now occurred to my mind that I had marched as a conqueror from the river Sind to Dehli, the capital of the kings of India. I had put the infidels to the edge of the sword on both sides of my route, and had scoured the land; I had seized upon the throne of the kings of India; I had defeated Sultan Mahmud, the king of Dehli, and triumphed over him; I had crossed the rivers Ganges and Jumna, and I had sent many of the abominable infidels to hell, and had purified the land from their foul existence. I rendered thanks to Almighty God that I had accomplished my undertaking, and had waged against the infidels that holy war I had resolved upon: then I determined to turn my course towards Samarkand, my capital and paradise…"

"In a valley (darra) of these hills there was a rai named Bahruz, the number of whose forces, and whose lofty, rugged, narrow, and strong position, made him superior to all the chiefs of the hills, and, indeed, of most of Hindustan. At the present time especially, he, having heard of my approach, had done his best to strengthen his position, and all the malignant rais of the country had gathered round him. Proud of the number of his men and soldiers, the height of his darra and abode, he stood firm, resolved upon fighting. On the other hand, I resolved upon attacking Bahruz and conquering the Siwalik hills."

"It now occurred to me that I would cross over the Jumna with a small party of horse to examine the palace of Jahan-numa, and to reconnoitre the ground on which a battle might be fought. So I took an escort of 700 horsemen clad in armour and went off. I sent on ‘Ali Sultan Tawachi and Junaid Bur-uldai as an advance guard. Crossing the Jumna I reached Jahan-numa and inspected [p. 51] the whole building, and I discovered a plain fit for a battlefield. ‘Ali Sultan and Junaid, my advance-guard, each brought in a man belonging to the van-guard of the enemy. ‘Ali Sultan’s prisoner was named Muhammad Salaf. When I had interrogated him about the matters of Sultan Mahmud and Mallu Khan, I ordered him to be put to death as an augury of good. My scouts now brought me information that Mallu Khan with 4,000 horsemen in armour, 5000 infantry, and twenty-seven fierce war elephants fully accoutred, had come out of the gardens of the city and had drawn up his array. I left Saiyid Khwajah and Mubashar Bahadur with 300 brave Turk horsemen on gray horses (sufaid sawar-i Turk) in the Jahan-numa and withdrew towards my camp. Mallu Khan advanced boldly towards Jahan-numa and Saiyid Khwajah and Mubashar went forth to meet him. A conflict ensued, and my men fought valiantly. Immediately I heard of the action I sent Sunjak Bahadur and Amir Allah-dad with two regiments (kushun) to their support. As soon as practicable, they assailed the enemy with arrows and then charged them. At the second and third charge the enemy was defeated and fled towards Delhi in disorder. Many fell under the swords and arrows of my men. When the men fled, an extraordinary incident occurred; one of the great war elephants, called Bengalis, fell down and died. When I heard of it I declared it be a good omen. My victorious troops pursued the enemy to the vicinity of the city, and then returned to present themselves at my tent. I congratutated them on their victory and praised their conduct. Next day, Friday the 3rd of the month, I left that fort of Loni and marched to a position opposite to Jahan-numa where I encamped. The officers who had been sent out foraging brought in large quantities of grain and spoil."

"I was satisfied with the victory I had won over Ratan Sen and his forces, and all that he possessed had fallen into the hands of my soldiers. Day came to a close, and I encamped between the two mountains. The princes and amirs of the right and left wing, whose way had lain through other valleys, came in to me in the evening, which was the evening of Friday, the 16th,10 and reported to me their engagements with the enemy, and the men who had distinguished themselves by feats of valour. After a night’s rest, on the morning of Friday, I arose, and after saying my prayers I mounted and rode towards the valley of those two mountains, intent upon the conquest of the Siwalik hills."

"On the 8th of the month I marched from Ahruni, through the jungle to a village called Tohana. In answer to the inquiries I made about the inhabitants, I learned that they were a robust race, and were called Jats. They were Musulmans only in name and had not their equals in theft and highway robbery. They plundered caravans upon the road, and were a terror to Musulmans and travelers. They had now abandoned the village and had fled to the sugar-cane fields, the [p. 45] valleys, and the jungles.2 When these facts reached my ears I prepared a force which I placed under the direction of Tokal Bahadur, son of the Hindu Karkarra,3and sent it against the Jats. They accordingly marched into the sugar-canes and jungles. I also sent Maulana Nasiru-d din in pursuit of them. When these forces overtook the Jats they put 200 to the sword and made the rest prisoners. A large stock of cattle was captured, and my soldiers returned to camp."

"I marched from this place to the banks of the river Khagar, where I halted, and Amir Sulaiman Shah arrived there also with the baggage on the 11th of the month. Samana was near to this place, and as the heavy baggage had not yet come up, I halted several days. On the 13th I marched again, and halted near the bridge of Kotila,4 an ancient structure over the river Khagar. At this stage Sultan Mahmud Khan, Prince Rustam and other commanders of regiments of the left wing, whom I had directed to march to India by way of Kabul, rejoined me. I received them graciously and enquired about the incidents which had happened on the march, and they informed me that wherever the people of any city, or village, or fort, made their submission and offered tribute, they gave them quarter; but whenever any city or fort offered resistance they conquered it, put the inhabitants to death, plundered the goods and property, and divided the spoil among tlhe soldiers. I approved and applauded them."

"The whole of Sultan Mahmud’s [the Tughlaq ruler of Delhi] army was defeated; part was slain, and part had found refuge in the fort, and I, exalted with victory, marched towards the fort. When I reached its gates I carefully reconnoitred its towers and walls, and then returned to the side of the Hauz-i khass…When I had pitched my camp here, the princes and amirs and nuyans, and all the generals and officers, came to wait upon me to pay their respects and offer their congratulations on this great victory.… I mounted my horse and rode towards the gate of the maidan. I alighted at the ’id-gah, a lofty and extensive building, and I gave orders for my quarters to be moved there, and for my throne to be set up in the id-gah. I took my seat upon the throne and held a Court. The saiyids, the kazis, the ’ulama (learned Musulmans), the shaikhs, and the great men and chiefs of the (Muhammadans of the) city assembled and came out to attend my Court. I had them introduced one by one, and they made their obeisances and were admitted to the honour of kissing my throne. I received every one of them with respect and kindness, and directed them to be seated. Fazlu-llah Balkhi was vakil and naib of Mallu Khan, and he came out to wait upon me and do homage, accompanied by a party of the officials and clerks of the government of Sultan Mahmud and Mallu Khan. Hereupon all the saiyids, ’ulama, shaikhs, and other leading Musulmans arose, and, making the princes their mediators, they begged that quarter might be given to the people of Dehli, and that their lives might be spared. Out of respect to the saiyids and ulama, whom I had always held in great esteem and honour, I granted quarter to the inhabitants of the city. I then ordered my ensign (tauk) and royal standard to be raised, and the drums to be beaten and music played on the tops of the gates of Dehli. Rejoicings for the victory followed. Some of the clever men and poets that accompanied me worked the date of the victory into a verse, which they presented to me. of all these memorial verses I have introduced (only) this one into my memoirs- — ‘On Wednesday, the eighth of Rabi’ the second (17th Dec., 1398), The Emperor Sahib-Kiran took the city of Dehli, etc., etc. I rewarded and honourably distinguished the literary men and poets who presented these verses to me… When Friday came, I sent Maulana Nasiru-d din ’Umar, with some other holy and learned men that accompanied my camp to the masjid-i jami, with directions to say the prayers for the Sabbath, and to repeat the khutba of my reign in the metropolis of Dehli. Accordingly, the khutba, with my name, was repeated in the pulpits of the mosques in the city of Dehli, and I rewarded the preachers with costly robes and presents…."