"Refusal laws exempt medical providers from duties of patient care that are imposed by various bodies of state and federal law governing institutions and professionals. Licensing boards enforce professional standards against healthcare institutions, doctors, nurses, and pharmacists. Tort law, and specifically medical malpractice, provides redress to patients injured by breaches of professional duties. Institutional actors and individual providers are also subject to common law and statutory obligations, including those imposed on public accommodations and healthcare facilities. And patients have constitutional rights, including reproductive and medical decision-making rights, in the healthcare context. Against this backdrop, refusal laws allow individuals and institutions in the healthcare industry to express conscience objections to interacting with persons who seek certain medical services—most commonly abortion, sterilization, and contraception. The laws provide religious exemptions for those who assert that abortion, sterilization, and contraception are sinful, and who object to acting in ways that, the claimants assert, would make them complicit in the sinful conduct of others. The laws appear to exempt healthcare providers from duties to patients. And they generally do not provide mechanisms to mediate their impact on patients."