Philosophers From Greece

"Though everything has a portion of everything in it, things appear to be that of which there is most in them (fr. 12 sub fin.). ...Air is that in which there is most cold, Fire that in which there is most heat ... [etc.]"

"Anaxagoras held that, however far you may divide... things—and they are infinitely divisible—you never come to a part so small that it does not contain portions of all the opposites. The smallest portion of bone is... bone. On the other hand, everything can pass into everything else... because the "seeds"... of each form of matter contain a portion of everything... [i.e.,] of all the opposites, though in different proportions. If we... use the word "element" at all, it is these seeds... [T]he "seeds"... he... substituted for the "roots" of Empedokles, were not the opposites in a state of separation, but each contained a portion of them all."

"[W]hen "all things were together," and when the different seeds... were mixed... in infinitely small particles (fr. 1), the appearance... would be that of one of... the primary substances. ...[T]hey did present the appearance of "air and aether"; for the qualities (things) which belong to these prevail in quantity... and everything is... that of which it has most... (fr. 12 sub fin.). Here... Anaxagoras attaches... to Anaximenes. The primary condition... before... formation of... worlds, is much the same in both; only, with Anaxagoras, the original mass is no longer the primary substance, but a mixture of innumerable seeds divided into infinitely small parts. This mass is infinite, like the air of Anaximenes, and... supports itself, since there is nothing surrounding it. ... [T]he "seeds" of all things which it contains are infinite in number (fr. 1). But... the... seeds may be divided into those in which the portions of cold, moist, dense, and dark prevail, and those which have most... warm, dry, rare, and light... the original mass was a mixture of infinite Air and... Fire. ..."

"It is of those opposites... that everything contains a portion. Every particle... large or... small, contains... [all] of those opposite qualities. ...Even snow, Anaxagoras affirmed, was black ...white contains a ...portion of the opposite quality. It is enough to indicate the connexion... with... Herakleitos..."

"That Anaxagoras regarded the senses as incapable of reaching the truth... is shown by... fragments preserved by Sextus. But we must not... turn him into a sceptic. ... He did say (fr. 21) that "the weakness of our senses prevents our discerning the truth," but this meant... we do not see the "portions"... [e.g.,] the portions of black which are in the white. Our senses simply show us the portions that prevail. He also said... things which are seen give us the power of seeing the invisible, which is the... opposite of scepticism (fr. 21a)."

""There is a portion of everything in everything except , and there are some things in which there is Nous also" (fr. 11). In these words Anaxagoras laid down the distinction between animate and inanimate things. ...[T]he same Nous ..."has power over," ...[i.e.,] sets in motion, all things that have life ...(fr. 12). ...The Nous was the same, but it had more opportunities in one body than another. Man was the wisest... not because he had... better... Nous, but... because he had hands. ...Parmenides ...had ...made the thought of men depend upon ...their limbs."

"It was a happy thought of Anaxagoras to make sensation depend upon irritation by opposites, and to connect it with pain. Many modern theories are based upon a similar idea."

"Aristotle says... if we suppose the first principles to be infinite, they may either be one in kind, as with Demokritos, or opposite. Simpliciuss, following Porphyry and Themistios, refers the latter view to Anaxagoras; and Aristotle... implies that the opposites of Anaxagoras had as much right to be... first principles as the "homoeomeries.""

"Alexander of Aitolia... referred to Euripides as the "nursling of brave Anaxagoras." ...The famous fragment on the blessedness of the scientific life might just as well refer to any other cosmologist as to Anaxagoras, and ...suggests ...a thinker ...more primitive ...[T]here is one fragment which distinctly expounds the central thought of Anaxagoras ...We may conclude ...that Euripides knew the philosopher and his views ..."

"The system of Anaxagoras, like that of Empedokles, aimed at reconciling the Eleatic doctrine that corporeal substance is unchangeable with... a world which... presents the appearance of coming into being and passing away. The conclusions of Parmenides are... accepted and restated. Nothing can be added to all things; for there cannot be more than all, and all is always equal (fr. 5). Nor can anything pass away. What men commonly call coming into being and passing away is... mixture and separation (fr. 17). This... reads almost like a prose paraphrase of Empedokles (fr. 9); and it is... probable... Anaxagoras derived his theory... from his younger contemporary, whose poem was most likely published before his own treatise."

"[T]here is no void in this mixture, an addition... made necessary by... arguments of Parmenides. Anaxagoras added an experimental proof of this to the purely dialectical one of the . He used the klepsydra experiment ... as Empedokles had done... and... showed the corporeal nature of air by means of inflated skins."

"Anaxagoras was the first philosopher to take up his abode at Athens."

"In science [Anaxagoras] had great merit. It was he who first explained that the moon shines by reflected light... Anaxagoras gave the correct theory of eclipses, and knew that the moon was below the sun. The sun and stars, he said, are fiery stones, but we do not feel the heat of the stars because they are too distant. The sun is larger than the Peloponnesus. The moon has mountains, and (he thought) inhabitants."

"We are not to suppose... he was attracted... by... the character of the Athenians. ...Athens had ...become the political centre of the Hellenic world; but it had not yet produced a single scientific man. ...[T]he temper of the citizen body... remained hostile to free inquiry... Sokrates, Anaxagoras, and Aristotle fell victims... to the bigotry of the democracy, though... their offence was political rather than religious. They were condemned not as heretics, but as innovators in the state religion. ..[A] recent historian observes, "Athens... was far from... a place for free inquiry to thrive unchecked." ...T]his ...has been in the minds of ...writers who ...represented philosophy as ...un-Greek. It was in reality thoroughly Greek, though... thoroughly unAthenian."

"The big bang and the steady state debate in some ways echoed that between the ideas of Anaximander and Anaxagoras from two and a half millennia earlier. Anaxagoras had envisaged that at one time "all things were together" and that the motive force for the universe originated at a single point... Anaximander on the other hand wanted a universe determined by "the infinite" and needed an "eternal motion" to explain the balancing process of things coming into being and passing away in an eternal universe... ancient philosophy was debating the alternatives of a creation event starting the universe from a single point versus a continuous creation in an eternal universe."

"Anaxagoras of Clazomenae postulated another element called the aether, which was in constant rotation and carried with it the celestial bodies. He also believed that there was a directing intelligence in nature that he called Nous which gives order to what otherwise would be a chaotic universe. By Nous he meant literally "the Mind of the Cosmos"… Anaxagoras was the last of the Ionian physicists."

"Anaxagoras was more inclined to the study of physics than of metaphysics, for which reason he is accused by Plato and by Aristotle of not having conceded enough to final causes, and of having converted God into a machine. Accordingly he explained on physical principles the formation of plants and animals, and even celestial phenomena; which drew upon him the charge of atheism. Nevertheless, he regarded the testimony of the senses as subjectively true; but as insufficient to attain to objective truth, which was the privilege of the reason."

"Anaxagoras says that perception is produced by opposites; for like things cannot be affected by like. ...It is in the same way that touch and discern their objects. That which is just as warm or just as cold as we are neither warms us nor cools us... [I]n the same way, we do not apprehend the sweet and the sour by means of themselves. We know cold by warm, fresh by salt, and sweet by sour, in virtue of our deficiency in each; for all these are in us to begin with. And we smell and hear in the same... And all sensation implies pain... for all unlike things produce pain by their contact. Brilliant colours and excessive s produce pain... The larger animals are the more sensitive, and... sensation is proportionate to the size of the organs of sense. ...Rarefied air has more smell ... when air is heated and rarefied, it smells. ...[S]mell is better perceived when it is near than when it is far by reason of its being more condensed, while when dispersed it is weak."

"It seems... reasonable... that Perikles... brought Anaxagoras to Athens... Holm has shown... the aim... was... to Ionise his ...citizens, to impart ...flexibility and openness of mind which characterised their kinsmen across the sea. ...The close relation in which Anaxagoras stood to Perikles is placed ...by the testimony of Plato ...In the Phaedrus ...Sokrates say[s]: "For all arts that are great, there is need of talk and discussion on the parts of that deal with things on high; for that seems to be the source which inspires high-mindedness and effectiveness in every direction. Perikles added this very acquirement to his original gifts. He fell in... with Anaxagoras, who was a scientific man; and, satiating himself with the theory of things on high, and having attained to a knowledge of the true nature of intellect and folly, which were... what the discourses of Anaxagoras were mainly about, he drew from that source... to further him in the art of speech.""

"Empedokles sought to save the world of appearance by maintaining that the opposites—hot and cold, moist and dry—were things, each...real in the Parmenidean sense. Anaxagoras regarded this as inadequate. ...[T]hings of which the world is made are not "cut off with a hatchet" (fr. 8) ...the true formula must be: There is a portion of everything in everything (fr. 11)."

"All things were together, infinite both in number and in smallness; for the small too was infinite."

"Wrongly do the Greeks suppose that aught begins or ceases to be; for nothing comes into being or is destroyed; but all is an aggregation or secretion of pre-existent things: so that all-becoming might more correctly be called becoming-mixed, and all corruption, becoming-separate."

"If one examines the reasons for the persecution of the best minds of different nations, and compares the reasons for the persecution and banishment of Pythagoras, Anaxagoras, Socrates, Plato, and others, one can observe that in each case the accusations and reasons for banishment were almost identical and unfounded. But in the following centuries full exoneration came, as if there had never been any defamation. It would be correct to conclude that such workers were too exalted for the consciousness of their contemporaries, and the sword of the executioner was ever ready to cut off a head held high.... A book should be written about the causes of the persecution of great individuals. By comparing the causes is it possible to trace the evil will."

"In mathematics... the Greek attitude differed sharply from that of the earlier potamic cultures. The contrast was clear in... Thales and Pythagoras, and it continues to show... in Athens during the Heroic Age. ...while Anaxagoras was in prison he occupied himself with an attempt to square the circle... the first mention of a problem that was to fascinate mathematicians for more than 2000 years. ...Here we see a type of mathematics that is quite unlike that of the Egyptians and Babylonians. It is not the practical application of a science of number... but a theoretical question involving a... distinction between accuracy in approximation and exactitude in thought. ...no more the concern of the technologist than those he raised... concerning the ultimate structure of matter."

"My dear Meletus, do you think you are prosecuting Anaxagoras? Are you so contemptuous of these men and think them so ignorant of letters as not to know that the books of Anaxagoras of Clazomenae are full of those theories, and further, that the young men learn from me what they can buy from time to time for a drachma, at most, in the bookshops, and ridicule Socrates if he pretends that these theories are his own, especially as they are so absurd? Is that, by Zeus, what you think of me, Meletus, that I do not believe that there are any gods?—That is what I say, that you do not believe in the gods at all."

"The endless sequence of explanation is explicit in Anaxagoras. Even the ingredients that go to make up something and account for its behaviour are themselves composed of ingredients which are themselves again composed of ingredients. [...] In every case, behaviour is a consequence of both the predominant features (which make it seem to be such and such) and also the hidden features (which can make it do otherwise inexplicable things). And this dual explanation will apply as much to the hidden ingredients as to the macroscopic items we encounter in daily life.But still it remains true for Anaxagoras that in principle the material composition (if we could know it in detail) would account for the current behaviour of each item in the world. Unless the thing is alive, that is. For living things, it looks as though the explanation must be supplemented by appeal to another principle, what Anaxagoras called ‘Mind’."

"Anaxagoras held that everything is infinitely divisible, and that even the smallest portion of matter contains some of each element. Things appear to be that of which they contain the most. Thus, for example, everything contains some fire, but we only call it fire if that element preponderates. He argues against the void, saying that the clepsydra or an inflated skin shows that there is air where there seems to be nothing."

"One incident belonging to the early manhood of Anaxagoras is... his observation of the huge ic stone which fell into the Aigospotamos in 468-67 B.c. ...[I]t may have occasioned one of his most striking departures from the earlier cosmology, and led to ...the ...view for which he was condemned at Athens."

"And since these things are so, we must suppose that there are contained many things and of all sorts in the things that are uniting, seeds of all things, with all sorts of shapes and colours and savours"

"Diogenes includes Anaxagoras in... philosophers who left... a single book, and... preserved the... criticism... that it was written "in a lofty and agreeable style." ...[F]rom the ...Apology ...the works of Anaxagoras could be bought at Athens for a single drachma; and ...was of some length ...[as] Plato ...speak[s] of it. ...Simplicius had ...a copy, ...and it is to him we owe the preservation of all our fragments, with ...[a few] doubtful exceptions. Unfortunately his quotations seem... confined to the First Book... dealing with general principles, so... we are... in the dark with regard to... details. This is... unfortunate, as... Anaxagoras... first gave the true theory of the moon’s light and... the true theory of eclipses."

"Anaxagoras... went back to ... settled at Lampsakos, and... founded a school there. Probably he did not live long after his exile. The Lampsakenes erected an altar to his memory in their market-place, dedicated to Mind and Truth; and the anniversary of his death was long kept as a holiday for school-children..."

"Shortly before the ... ...enemies of Perikles began ...attacks upon him through his friends. Pheidias was the first to suffer, and Anaxagoras... next. ...[H]e was an object of special hatred to the religious party ...even though the charge ...against him does not suggest ...he went out of his way to hurt their susceptibilities. The details of the trial are somewhat obscure... [F]irst ...was ...a psephism by —the same whom Aristophanes laughs at in The Birds—enacting that an impeachment should be brought against those who did not practise religion, and taught theories about "the things on high." ...[A]t the actual trial ... authorities give ... conflicting accounts. ...[F]rom Plato ...the accusation was ...that Anaxagoras taught the sun was a red-hot stone, and the moon earth; ...[H]e ...did hold these views ...[H]e was got out of prison and sent away by Perikles."

"Mind is infinite and self-ruled, and is mixed with nothing, but is alone itself by itself."

"As all Nous is the same... plants were regarded as living creatures. ...Plutarch says... [Anaxagoras] called plants "animals fixed in the earth." ...Plants first arose when the seeds... which the air contained were brought down by the rain-water, and animals originated in a similar way."

"Thought is something limitless and independent, and has been mixed with no thing but is alone by itself. ... What was mingled with it would have prevented it from having power over anything in the way in which it does. ... For it is the finest of all things and the purest."

"[W]e may assume [Anaxagoras] belonged to a family which had won distinction in the State. Nor need we reject the tradition that Anaxagoras neglected his possessions to follow science. ...[I]n the fourth century he was... regarded as the type of the man who leads the "theoretic life.""

"The sun provides the moon with its brightness."

"The Greeks follow a wrong usage in speaking of coming into being and passing away; for nothing comes into being or passes away, but there is mingling and separation of things that are. So they would be right to call coming into being mixture, and passing away separation."

"The statement... there is a portion of everything in everything, is not... referring simply to the original mixture of things before the formation of the worlds (fr. 1). ...[E]ven now “all things are together,” and everything... has an equal number of “portions” (fr. 6). A smaller particle... could only contain a smaller number of portions... [I]f anything is, in the... Parmenidean sense, it is impossible that mere division should make it cease to be (fr. 3). Matter is infinitely divisible... there is no least thing, any more than there is a greatest. But however great or small.., it contains... the same number of "portions,"... [i.e.,] a portion of everything."

"One cannot say that the case for Parmenides is proved. If it is accepted, it is a strange freak of history that so fundamental a discovery should have been made by one for whom the whole physical world was an unreal show."

"Greek philosophy returned for some time to the concept of the One in the teachings of Parmenides... His most important contribution... was, perhaps, that he introduced a purely logical argument into metaphysics. "One cannot know what is not—that is impossible—nor utter it; for it is the same thing that can be thought and that can be." Therefore, only the One is, and there is no becoming or passing away. Parmenides denied the existence of empty space for logical reasons. Since all change requires empty space... he dismissed change as an illusion."

"What is clear is that Parmenides is making a conscious attempt at some kind of a new start. Like Descartes, he is trying to find an unassailable starting-point on which something further can be built. This search is understandable, given the intellectual situation of the time. The principles of the Milesians had yielded no one clearly true system, but a number of rival ones — in itself a scandal. Heraclitus had made the whole of cosmology suspect by revealing deep-seated contradictions at its heart. In the background, the Pythagoreans were directly or indirectly stimulating new lines of thought and using them, perhaps, for their own mysterious purposes."

"Of the philosophers, Thales is vaguely reported to have taught that souls are immortal. But neither he nor his immediate successors... believed in the immortality of particular souls... This doctrine belongs to the Orphic tradition. In Heracleitus and Parmenides we find the two doctrines of immortality... implicit in mysticism, separated... for the first time. Heracleitus is the champion of the Dionysiac... life and death... in an unending cycle; Parmenides, under Orphic influence, teaches... Soul has fallen from... light and reality to the dark and unreal... bodily existence. This, however, is... only 'the way of opinion'... [Parmenides] feels.... that... substantiality... is not so easily got rid of. But he will not give up... eternal substance. The most interesting fragment of Parmenides... seems to enunciate, for the first time in Greek thought, the mystical doctrine of eternity as a timeless Now, as opposed to the popular... unending succession. 'There remains then only to give an account of one way—that real Being exists. Many signs... showing... it is unborn, indestructible, entire, unique, unshakable, and unending. It never was, and it never will be, since it is all together present in the Now, one and indivisible.' Empedocles... repudiates... Parmenides, probably on the ground that he reduces the world of time and change to nullity... thus leaves no pathway from appearance to reality. His doctrine of the soul’s exile and wanderings is... Orphic doctrine, which Pindar also gives... in the second Olympian Ode. The Soul sins by separating itself from God... from love and a choice of ' strife ’ in the place of harmony. The immortal Soul is... love and strife blended; the body... only an 'alien garment'... perishes at death. ...Empedocles describes the Soul as a ratio, or harmony ...the complex of...'strife'... bound... by the principle of unity...'love'...Parmenides ...may be ...rejects the Pytdhagorean doctrines ...finds truth in static materialism."

"The appearances of multiplicity and motion, empty space and time, are illusions."

"That which is, is ...it cannot be more or less. There is... as much of it in one place as in another... a continuous, indivisible plenum. From this it follows... that it must be immovable... [for] it must move into an empty space, and there is no empty space. ...For the same reason, it must be finite, and can have nothing beyond it. It is complete in itself, and has no need to stretch out indefinitely into an empty space that does not exist. ...It is equally real in every direction ...the ...the only form ...Any other would ...[have distinguishable] direction... [T]his sphere cannot ...move round its ...axis; for there is nothing outside ...[to] reference..."

"[T]he primary substance of which the early cosmologists were in search has now become a... "thing in itself." It never... lost this character again. ...[T]he elements of Empedokles, the... "homoeomeries" of Anaxagoras... the atoms of Leukippos and Demokritos, is just the Parmenidean "being." ...[A]ll materialism depends on his view of reality."

"[Aristotle] was... aware that Parmenides did not admit the existence of "not being"... but... call[ed] the cosmology of the Second Part of the poem that of Parmenides. His Hearers would understand at once in what sense this was meant."

"He goes on to develop all the consequences of the admission that it is. It must be uncreated and indestructible. It cannot have arisen out of nothing; for there is no such thing as nothing. Nor can it have arisen from something; for there is no room for anything but itself."

"[E]mpty space is nothing, nothing cannot be thought, and therefore cannot exist. What is, never came into being, nor is anything going to come into being in the future. "Is it or is it not?" If it is, then it is now, all at once."

"Plato... says that Parmenides held "all things were one, and that the one remains at rest in itself, having no place in which to move.""