Mythology

"And the widows of Ashur are loud in their wail, And the idols are broke in the temple of Baal; And the might of the Gentile, unsmote by the sword, Hath melted like snow in the glance of the Lord!"

"Peor, and Baalim, Forsake their Temples dim,"

"[...] With these in troop Came Astoreth, whom the Phoenicians call’d Astarte, Queen of Heav’n, with crescent Horns; To whose bright Image nightly by the Moon Sidonian Virgins paid their Vows and Songs, In Sion also not unsung, where stood Her Temple on th’ offensive Mountain, built By that uxorious King, whose heart though large, Beguil’d by fair Idolatresses, fell To Idols foul. [...]"

"And Jehu gathered all the people together, and said unto them, Ahab served Baal a little; but Jehu shall serve him much.Now therefore call unto me all the prophets of Baal, all his servants, and all his priests; let none be wanting: for I have a great sacrifice to do to Baal; whosoever shall be wanting, he shall not live. But Jehu did it in subtilty, to the intent that he might destroy the worshippers of Baal.And Jehu said, Proclaim a solemn assembly for Baal. And they proclaimed it.And Jehu sent through all Israel: and all the worshippers of Baal came, so that there was not a man left that came not. And they came into the house of Baal; and the house of Baal was full from one end to another.And he said unto him that was over the vestry, Bring forth vestments for all the worshippers of Baal. And he brought them forth vestments.And Jehu went, and Jehonadab the son of Rechab, into the house of Baal, and said unto the worshippers of Baal, Search, and look that there be here with you none of the servants of the LORD, but the worshippers of Baal only.And when they went in to offer sacrifices and burnt offerings, Jehu appointed fourscore men without, and said, If any of the men whom I have brought into your hands escape, he that letteth him go, his life shall be for the life of him.And it came to pass, as soon as he had made an end of offering the burnt offering, that Jehu said to the guard and to the captains, Go in, and slay them; let none come forth. And they smote them with the edge of the sword; and the guard and the captains cast them out, and went to the city of the house of Baal.And they brought forth the images out of the house of Baal, and burned them.And they brake down the image of Baal, and brake down the house of Baal, and made it a draught house unto this day.Thus Jehu destroyed Baal out of Israel."

"The serpent of the third chapter of Genesis is not at all its own creation, exclusive to the biblical story. The concept of the principle of evil and pain, represented in the figure of a monstrous reptile, which lurks against the Divinity and against the well-being of all created works of the visible cosmos, but even more against the human race, is obvious and fundamental in the Babylonian religion. We recall in the aforementioned creation poem Marduk's struggle against Tiamat and the other powers of darkness, in the form of dragons and similar wriggling monstrous reptiles; to linger in the multiform plastic and literary expressions that the dragon, the monstrous reptile, the principle of evil, in short, assumes in the ideal Babylonian world, seems superfluous to us."

"The primordial chaos is represented with the term Tehôm, which has the linguistic sense of stormy oceanic abyss, and which is simply the masculine form of the corresponding expression Tiamat (Babylonian pronunciation of the Semitic Tihamat), in [...] Poem of Creation."

"In fact, while for the Babylonians, for example, the primordial Chaos (Tiamat) existed ab aeterno, and the generating principle of the powerful Gods to make them a cosmos, instead for the Jews this Chaos (Tehôm ) not only was it something separate and divided from God - existing in itself, outside and apart from the world - but it was a non-entity, something empty and vain, relating to God, before he created the cosmos visible. The hagiographer of Genesis}} would have been annoyed by anyone who had told him that the earth and the waters of this verse were to be considered as an entity not created by God; he would have denied that they are an entity."

"In a cylinder from the British Museum, a cylinder dating back to around 800 BCE., Tiāmat has the exact shape of a serpent, as long as the seal itself. [...] In addition to some other similar cylinders, with Tiāmat in the form of a serpent, we also have cylinders with Tiāmat in the guise of a lion-griffin or dragon. This depiction of the monster is very common in the last period, but it is nothing more than an artistic variant of the first."

"From what we have explained about the depictions of the conflict between Marduk and Tiāmat, it can be seen that the monster was the famous dragon of Babel, represented countless times in Mesopotamian art, a dragon that could have either an elongated shape, almost like a serpent, or a shortened one of a lion. Originally, however, it must have been a snake."

"Marduk would represent [...] the spring sun, and the world would have begun precisely in this season. Tiāmat instead represents winter and night and also disorderly chaos, according to the view of the various theological schools of the country and also of the Babylonians and Assyrians of different eras."

"Miðgarðsormr"

"Having therefore faced | Tiamat and Marduk, the Wise among the gods, | They entwined in the fight | And they joined in melee! | But the Lord, having spread his Net, | He wrapped it in you, | Then he cast the evil Wind against her, | Which he kept in the rear. | And when Tiamat had opened | The mouth, to swallow it, | The evil Wind poured into it | To prevent her from closing her lips. | All the Winds, with fury, | Then they filled her belly, | So that his body was swollen, | His mouth wide open. | Then he launched his Arrow | And he tore her chest, | He divided her body in half, | And he opened her belly. | Thus he triumphed over her, | Ending his life. | Then he threw the body to the ground And he stood there.""

"The Mother-Abyss, | Who formed everything, | He has prepared Irresistible Weapons: | He brought giant dragons into the world | With sharp teeth, | From the ruthless (?) fangs, | Whose body he filled | Of poison instead of blood; | And ferocious Leviathans, | To which he gave a frightening appearance And surrounded with supernatural splendor, | Thus equating them to the gods: | "Whoever sees them (he said) | Lose his senses! | And let them once launched, | Let them never retreat!" | He created Idre again, | Formidable dragons, Sea monsters, | Colossal Lions, | Rabid molossians, Scorpion men, | Aggressive monsters, | Fishmen, Gigantic Bisons: | Wielding all merciless weapons | And without fear of combat; | Their delegated powers, immeasurable, | And they, irresistible!"

"With a fresh mind, the Lord | He contemplated Tiamat's corpse: | He wanted to cut off the monstrous flesh | To make beautiful things out of it. | He cut her in two, | Like a fish to be dried, | And he arranged half of it | Which curved like the Sky. | He stretched the skin, | On which he installed guardians | To whom he entrusted the mission | To prevent its waters from erupting.""

"Scholars have often noted how the name of the great mother-goddess in this Babylonian creation story, ti'amat, is etymologically linked to the Hebrew term tehom, "the abyss", of the second verse of Genesis, and that like the wind of Anu expired on the abyss and that of Marduk on the face of Tiamat, so in Genesis 1, 2, "the wind [the spirit] of Elohim hovered [or blew] on the surface of the waters". Furthermore, as Marduk arranged the upper half of the mother's body as a roof with the waters below, so in Genesis 1, 7, "Elohim made the firmament and separated the waters that were under the firmament from those that were above." Again, as Ea defeated Apsu and Marduk defeated Tiamat, so did Yahweh with the sea monster Rahab (Job 26, 12-13) and with the Leviathan ( Job 41; Psalms 74, 14). (Joseph Campbell)"

"Rahab is the formidable Tiamat, who the Babylonian demiurge Marduk cut into two parts, from which heaven and earth arose. The Jews were able to learn about this myth even before the captivity. Traces of it are found in Job and in some psalms. (Alfred Loisy)"

"Then the Head of Tiamat was placed, | He piled you on top of a mountain Where he opened a Source | (In which) a River trembled. | He opened in his eyes | The Euphrates and the Tigris.""

"Lazarus is carried off by the angels to "Abraham's bosom", a phrase that never occurs in early Jewish literature but probably simply means that Lazarus has been brought to paradise to recline at table beside the great patriarch of Israel. The rich man, on the other hand, is buried and ends up in Hades. ... It is hard to know what to make of the physicality of both descriptions. Abraham has a "bosom", Lazarus has fingers, the rich man has a tongue and obviously a nervous system susceptible to torment by fire. ... Moreover, the respective fates of the two appear to be permanent. There is a vast chasm separating them."

"In the part lowest of the abysses is Sheol, the place where those dwell who have passed to the state of rephaim or "shades". ... We already find in Ezekiel a part of Sheol distinguished as deeper, called the "pit" or "the lowest parts of the earth", where the uncircumcised descend and those who have fallen by the sword, causing terror in the land of the living. In course of time this distinction came to be more definite: the upper part of Sheol, destined for the just, was called "Abraham's bosom", and the lower part became Gehenna, where sinners were tormented in flames."

"[Suraj Mal concluded a peace treaty with the Mir Bakshi Salabat Jang in 1750, whereby latter promised:] ( a ) not to cut down pipal trees nor hinder the worship of that tree ; ( b ) not to offer any insult or injury to Hindu temples."

"Whenever the Muharram… chances to coincide with Hindu festivals... serious riots have occurred as the processions meet in front of a mosque or Hindu temple, or when an attempt is made to cut the branches of some sacred fig-tree which impedes the passage of the cenotaphs...."

""Indian government funded in part the work of ISKCON (Hare Krishna) in re-forestation of Vrindavan. Department of environment is supporting temples to maintain sacred groves. Ecological aspects of Sanatana dharma have been included in the school text books of at least one state, UP." ... Ms. Nanda has described how environmentalism in India is often clothed in Hindu language and symbolism. Thus, in trying to protect trees, women tie rakhis, the auspicious red threads which sisters tie around their brothers' wrists on the Hindu festival of Raksha Bandhan, around these trees."

"The king... breaks the temples and uproots tulsi plants… The bathing in Ganga is prohibited and hundreds of sacred asvattha and jack trees have been cut down."

"All the people of India used to prostrate themselves before stones, idols, trees, animals, cows and cow-dung."

"The trees were cut with axes and felled, notwithstanding their groans; and the Hindus, who worship trees, could not at that time come to the rescue of their idols, so that every cursed tree which was in that capital of idolatry was cut down to the roots…"

"A person is honored in Vaikuntha for as many thousand years as the days he resides in a house where tulasi is grown. And if one properly grows bilva, which pleases Lord Siva, in his family, the goddess of riches resides permanently passes on to the sons and grandsons He who plants even a single asvattha, wherever it may be, as per the prescribed mode, goes to the abode of Hari. He who has planted dhatri has performed several sacrifices. He has donated the earth. He would be considered a celebate forever. He who plant a couple of banyan trees as per the prescribed mode would go to the abode of Siva and many heavenly nymphs will attend upon him. After planting neem trees a person well-versed in dharma attains the abode of Sun. Indeed! He resides there for a long period. By planting four plaksa trees a person doubtlessly obtains the fruits of Rajasuya sacrifice. He who plants five or six mango trees attains the abode of Garuda and lives happily forever like gods. One should plant seven palasa trees or even one. One attains the abode of Brahma and enjoys the company of gods by doing so. He who himself plants eight udumbara trees or even prompts someone to plant them, rejoices in the lunar world He who has planted madhuka has propitiated Parvati, has become free from diseases, and has worshipped all deities. If one plants ksirini, dadimi, rambha, priyala, and panasa, one experiences no affliction for seven births. He who has knowingly or unknowingly planted ambu is respected as a recluse even while staying in the house. By planting all kinds of other trees, useful for fruits and flowers, a person gets a reward of thousand cows adorned with jewels. By planting one asvattha, one picumanda, one nyagrodha, ten tamarind trees, the group of three, viz., kapittha, bilva, and amalaka, and five mango trees, one never visits hell."

"Do not the Hindus all over the country worship the tree? Tulasi, bilva, ashwattha are all sacred to the Hindu."

"The existence of the antichthon was... a hypothesis intended to account for... eclipses. ...Aristotle says that the Pythagoreans invented it... to bring the number of revolving bodies up to ten; but that is a... sally... Aristotle... knew better. In his work on the Pythagoreans... he said... eclipses of the moon were caused sometimes by.... the earth and sometimes by... the antichthon... the same statement was made by Philip of Opous..."

"The central fire received a number of mythological names. ...[W]e are dealing with a real scientific hypothesis. It was a great thing... that the phenomena could best be "saved" by a central luminary, and that the earth must... be a revolving sphere like the planets. [W]e are almost tempted to say that the identification of the central fire with the sun... suggested for the first time in the Academy, is a mere detail in comparison. The great thing was that the earth should... take its place among the planets... once... done.., we can... search for the true "hearth" of the planetary system... It is probable... that... this theory... made it possible for Herakleides of Pontos and Aristarchos of Samos to reach the heliocentric hypothesis, and it was... Aristotle’s reversion to the geocentric theory which made it necessary for Copernicus to discover the truth afresh. We have his own word for it that the Pythagorean theory put him on the right track."

"Aristotle shows... how the theory originated... that some thought there might be a considerable number of bodies revolving round the centre, though invisible because of the intervention of the earth, and... they accounted... for there being more eclipses of the moon than of the sun. ...Aristotle regarded the two hypotheses as of the same nature."

"[I]t is... incredible that the heaven of the fixed stars should have been regarded as stationary. That would have been the most startling paradox that any scientific man had yet propounded, and we should have expected the comic poets and popular literature generally to raise the cry of atheism... [W]e should have expected Aristotle to say something... He made the circular motion of the heavens the... keystone of his system, and would have regarded... a stationary heaven as blasphemous. ...[H]e argues against those who, like the Pythagoreans and Plato, regarded the earth as in motion; but he does not attribute the view that the heavens are stationary to any one. There is no necessary connexion between the two ideas. All the heavenly bodies may be moving as rapidly as we please, provided that their relative motions are such as to account for the phenomena."

"Plato gives a description of the earth and its position... entirely opposed to... [antichthon theory], but is accepted... by Simmias the disciple of Philolaos. It is undoubtedly... Pythagorean... and marks... advance on the Ionian views then current at Athens. ...Plato states it as ...a novelty that the earth does not require ...support ...to keep it in its place. ...Anaxagoras had not been able to shake himself free of that idea, and Demokritos still held it."

"It seems probable that the... earth’s revolution round the central fire... originated in the account... by Empedokles of the sun's light. The two... are brought into... connexion by Aetios, who says... Empedokles believed in two suns, while Philolaos believed in two or... three. The theory of Empedokles... gives two inconsistent explanations of night."

"Anaximenes... assumed... existence of dark planets to account for the frequency of s, and Anaxagoras... revived that view. Certain Pythagoreans had placed these dark planets between the earth and the central fire... to account for their invisibility, and the next stage was to reduce them to a single body. ...[A]gain ...the Pythagoreans tried to simplify the hypotheses of ...predecessors."

"The tradition confirms... the importance of the in the Pythagorean system. According to one account, Hippasos was drowned at sea for revealing its construction and claiming the discovery as his οwn."

"The most interesting point in the theory is... the use... of the ... identified... with the "sphere of the universe," or... in the Philolaic fragment, with the "hull of the sphere." ...[I]t must be taken in close connexion with the word "" applied to the central fire. The structure of the world was compared to the building of a ship..."

"[T]he Pythagoreans adopted the pentagram or pentalpha as their symbol. The use... in later magic is well known; and Paracelsus... employed it as a symbol of health, which is... what the Pythagoreans called it."

"[W]hat distinguished the Pythagoreanism of this period from its earlier form was that it sought to adapt... to the new theory of "elements." ...[T]his ...makes it necessary ...to take up ...consideration of the system ...in connexion with the pluralists."

"Aristotle criticises the Pythagoreans. They held, he says, that in one part of the world Opinion prevailed, while a little above it or below it were to be found Injustice or Separation or Mixture, each... a number. But in the very same regions of the heavens were... things having magnitude which were also numbers. How can this be, since Justice has no magnitude? This means... the Pythagoreans... failed to give... clear account of the relation between these... fanciful analogies and their quasi-geometrical construction of the universe."

"When the Pythagoreans returned to Southern Italy, they must have found views... there which... demanded a partial reconstruction of their own system. ...Empedokles founded a philosophical society, but ...influence[d] ...the medical school of these regions; and ...Philolaos played a part in the history of medicine."

"The science of geometry had... made considerable advances, but the old view of quantity as a sum of units had not been revised... so... [ such a] doctrine... was inevitable."

"[T]his way of regarding the point... line, and... surface is closely bound... with... representing numbers by dots... in symmetrical patterns... attribut[ed]... to the Pythagoreans."

"[T]he Pythagorean construction of the elements was... that... in Plato’s Timaeus. ...[T]here is good reason for believing they only knew three of the regular solids, the , the pyramid (), and the . Plato starts from fire and earth, and... the construction οf the elements proceeds... such... that the and the can easily be transformed into pyramids, while the cube and the dodecahedron cannot. ...[I]t follows that, while air and water pass readily into fire, earth cannot... and the dodecaedron is reserved for another purpose... This would... suit the Pythagorean system; for it would leave room for a dualism... outlined in the Second Part of the poem of Parmenides."

"Hippasos made Fire the first principle, and... from the Timaeus... it would be possible to represent air and water as forms of fire. The other element is... earth, not air, as... it was in early Pythagoreanism. That would be a... result of the discovery of atmospheric air by Empedokles and of his general theory of the elements. It would... explain the... fact... that Aristotle identifies the two "forms" spoken of by Parmenides with Fire and Earth."

"In the Phaedo we read that the "true earth,"... looked at from above, is "many-coloured like the balls that are made of twelve pieces of leather." In the Timaeus... "Further, as there is still one construction left, the fifth, God made use of it for the universe when he painted it." ...[T]he approaches more nearly to the than any other of the regular solids. The twelve pieces of leather used to make a ball would... be s; and, if the material were not flexible like leather, we should have a dodecahedron instead of a sphere. This points to the Pythagoreans having had at least the rudiments of the "" formulated later by Eudoxos."

"They must have studied the properties of circles by means of inscribed polygons and those of spheres by means of inscribed solids. That gives us a high idea of their mathematical attainments; but that it is not too high, is shown by the fact that the famous lunules of Hippokrates date from the middle of the fifth century. The inclusion of straight and curved in the "table of opposites" under the head of Limit and Unlimited points in the same direction."

"The account of the doctrine given by Plato is... in accordance with the view that it was of medical origin. Simmias says: "Our body being... strung and held together by the warm and the cold, the dry and the moist... [etc.,] our soul is a sort of temperament and attunement of these, when... mingled... well and in due proportion. If, then, our soul is an attunement,... when the body has been relaxed or strung up out of measure by diseases and other ills, the soul must... perish at once." This is... an application of the theory of Alkmaion, and is in accordance with... the Sicilian school of medicine. It completes the evidence that the Pythagoreanism of the end of the fifth century was an adaptation of the old doctrine to the new principles introduced by Empedokles."

"The planetary system which Aristotle attributes to "the Pythagoreans" and Aetios to Philolaos is... remarkable. The earth is no longer in the middle of the world; its place... taken by a central fire, which is not... the sun. Round this fire revolve ten bodies. First comes the Antichthon or , and next the earth, which thus becomes one of the planets. After the earth comes the moon, then the sun, the five planets, and the heaven of the fixed stars. We do not see the central fire and the antichthon because... [our] side of the earth... is always turned away from them.., explained by the analogy of the moon. ...[M]en living on the other side of it would never see the earth. ...[A]ll these bodies rotate on their axes in the same time as they revolve round the central fire."

"The... inference from the Phaedo would... be that the theory of a spherical earth, kept in the middle of the world by its equilibrium, was that of Philolaos... If so, the doctrine of the central fire would belong to a somewhat later generation of the school, and Plato may have learnt it from Archytas and his friends after he had written the Phaedo."

"Aristotle is... decided as to Pythagorean points having magnitude. "They construct the whole world out of numbers... but they suppose the units have magnitude. As to how the first unit with magnitude arose, they appear to be at a loss.""