Wars And Battles

"Thus, whereas the text passages about the historical Battle of the Ten Kings (incidentally near the Ravi river, right on the present Indo-Pak border) repeatedly have the Vedic king Sudās come from the East and his Iranian-named enemies from the West, the translators insisted on having Sudās come from the West and fight against the Eastern “Aboriginals”."

"R.D. Dandekar, who subscribed to the Aryan migration model, proposed a fairly sober reconstruction of the Battle of the Ten Kings, but was more honest in admitting, “I must hasten to add that the Dåsaråjña has nowhere in the Vedic literature been described in a consistent and connected narrative. [...] I have collated the relevant material from the various versions of the Dåsaråjña, have tried to eliminate the inconsistencies and deficiencies in them as far as possible, and have reconstructed a plausible history mainly with the help of constructive imagination.” He was also not sure that the number “ten” should be taken literally; it “has to be understood as being only generally descriptive rather than definitive”."

"[It] has long been used as a major source for the reconstruction of `Rgvedic history, perhaps somewhat too credulously, as the description of the battle is anything but clear and is also clearly full of puns, derisive word plays, phonological deformations of the names of opponents, and other poetic tricks, all couched in slangy language."

"Væ victis!"

"Flag-Ship Wabash, Port Royal Harbor, S. C, June 6, 1863.Sir: About ten days ago Major General Hunter applied to me for a gunboat to assist a land force in an expedition against Bluffton, which lies on May river, a stream emptying into Calibogue sound.This town has been the headquarters for the rebels for a long time in this vicinity, from which pickets were distributed at various points.At the time Major General Hunter wrote this request I had no gunboat in port; but, on the 3d instant, I ordered Lieutenant Commander Bacon to proceed with the Commodore McDonough on this expedition.The army forces, numbering, I believe, about one thousand (1,000) men, were on board the army gunboat Mayflower and an army transport, and under the command of Colonel Barton.On arriving near Bluffton the troops were landed under the protection of the Commodore McDonough, and took possession of the town, the rebels having retreated. By the orders of Colonel Barton the town was destroyed by fire, the church only being spared; and though the troops made several charges, they were driven back by the troops and the shells and shrapnell of the Commodore McDonough. Bluffton being destroyed, the soldiers re-embarked without casualties, and returned to Hilton Head.Enclosed (marked No. 1) is the interesting report of Lieutenant Commander Bacon, who speaks in high terms of Colonel Barton, the commanding officer of the land forces.Lieutenant Commander Bacon, whose vessel is well fitted for these inland waters, has in this case, as in all others, exhibited his characteristic energy and intelligence.Very respectfully, your obedient servant, S. F. DUPONT, Rear-Admiral, Commanding S. A. B. Squadron.Hon. GIDEON WELLES, Secretary of the Navy, Washington, D. C."

"Hic manebimus optime."

"Vivat Hispania! Domino gloria! Don John of Austria Has set his people free!"

"I sing a wondrous worke of God, [...] To wit, a cruell Martiall warre, A bloudy battell bold, Long doubtsome fight, with slaughter huge, And wounded manifold. Which fought was in LEPANTOES gulfe, Betwixt the baptiz'd race, And circumcisèd Turband Turkes Rencountring in that place."

"Then Satan answered, Fayth? Quoth he, Their Fayth is too too small; They striue, me thinke, on eyther part, Who farthest backe can fall: Hast thou not giuen them in my hands, Euen both the sides, I say, That I, as best doth seeme to me, May vse them euery way?"

"Their raging, day-long battle would become a testament to the warriors’ tenacious determination to protect their territory and to the treasure hunters’ wherewithal to defend themselves against the overwhelming odds of 15 to one."

"His San Saba heroics marked him braver than the average land speculator."

"Thinking that the Turks would try to capture him alive, Viramade spoke rousing words to his men and thrust a curved dagger (Karari) in his waist band, and tied it fast.2 Filled with buming ardour, Raval Viramade put on the armour and secured it firmly over his body. That peerless warrior mounted his horse and gave out an angry roar as he advanced against the Turkish army;*” this filled the Rauts with the same angry passion. Who could bear the mighty blows of their weapons! Knowing that heavy burden had fallen upon their young prince, they plied their weapons well and put up a splendid fight. The praise of the valorous deeds of the warriors were being sung on both the sides as the HindUs and the Turks engaged in hand to hand combat. The Hindis succeeded in driving back the Turks, slaughtering them as they retreated.>” Right till the midday the Rai continued the fight against the Turkish army. At last, after slaying a large number of Mlechchhas, Viramade fell, having received several sword cuts and thrusts from the enemy blades.?!°"

""O beautiful and lovely one! We bid you adieu in this life, fair one, till we meet aggin in our next birth. We pray that Viramade be bom again in the noble Chauhana house*” and may we again be his consorts here at Sonagiri."> Saying these words, they walked up to the Jauhar site, and filled with exalted emotions, they sacrificed themselves in the raging fire.25"

"The Emperor's reply was plain and firm: "We have nine lacs of mounted troops and ten lacs foot soldiers. Any number of them may be killed, yet a great number of them will still remain." The Hindus, on the other hand, are said to have eighty thousand foot, and, in all one lac horsemen. Do not tum back even if your losses reach twice their number.! You know, Kanhadade will not break his word; he would not make a night attack in any case."!"? And rightly so, says Padmanabha Pandita. Even if the Dhruva star becomes unstable, the noble people do not break their pledge."""

"Viramade, in the interest of the dynasty, ruled for three and half days. His queens, all of noble lineage, now prepared for Jauhar* They took bath, distributed charities, and visited the temple. Accompanying their lord in death, they said, "By performing Jauhar, we will bring glory to the families."?9? Their female companions, all lovely and beautiful, looked on tearfully as the queens walked up to the bastion and, controlling their tears, they addressed their beloved Jalor mountain: *°""

"Returning home from daily namaaz in the afternoon, I saw a well armed gang of about 200 tribals in a motor convoy. They were stranded as the bridge on Uri Nalla (now known as NS Bridge) was blown by J &K State Forces. These tribesmen were becoming restless. A few of them stopped the locals and asked them for any alternate route. When they replied in negative, the locals had to face the wrath of savages. Since, they could not move across the Uri Nalla, tribal settled in Uri town and Peeristan. They then started looting and burning the houses. Few of the tribal performed more devious crimes. My 80 years old grand mother was beaten on the chest, kicked in the abdomen and then hacked to death. My neighbour Manzoor was also stabbed in the abdomen. Few tribal grabbed his sister Aaliya, who had come home and beat her till she could no longer stand. Then they raped her and stabbed her repeatedly in the abdomen and the pelvis. Four long hours passed. I hid near the masjid, frozen, and then I ran down towards jungles and returned only when I came to know that Indian Army has moved in. During this violence I lost my elder brother, my sister-in-law. My house was gutted and everything was taken away by the tribals."

"The Pashtun tribesmen under Khurshid Anwar`s command halted after reaching Baramula, only an hour`s bus ride from Srinagar and refused to go any further. Here they embarked on a three-day binge, looting houses assaulting Muslims and Hindus alike, raping men and women and stealing money from Kashmir treasury. The local cinema was transformed into a rape centre. A group of Pashtuns invaded St Joseph's convent, where they raped and killed four nuns, including the mother superior."

"(March 17th, 1527) On Saturday the 13th day of the second Jumāda of the date 933, a day blessed by the words, God hath blessed your Saturday, the army of Islām was encamped near the village of Kānwa, a dependency of Bīāna, hard by a hill which was four miles from the enemies of the Faith. When those accursed infidel foes of Muḥammad’s religion heard the reverberation of the armies of Islām, they arrayed their ill-starred forces and moved forward with one heart, relying on their mountain-like, demon-shaped elephants, as had relied the Lords of the Elephant1 who went to overthrow the sanctuary (ka‘ba) of Islām. Having these elephants, the wretched Hindus Became proud, like the Lords of the Elephant; Yet were they odious and vile as is the evening of death, Blacker than night, outnumbering the stars, All such as fire is but their heads upraised In hate, as rises its smoke in the azure sky, Ant-like they come from right and from left, Thousands and thousands of horse and foot. They advanced towards the victorious encampment, intending to give battle. The holy warriors of Islām, trees in the garden of valor, moved forward in ranks straight as serried pines and, like pines uplift their crests to heaven, uplifting their helmet-crests which shone even as shine the hearts of those that strive in the way of the Lord; their array was like Alexander’s iron-wall, and, as is the way of the Prophet’s Law, straight and firm and strong, as though they were a well-compacted building; and they became fortunate and successful in accordance with the saying, They are directed by their Lord, and they shall prosper. In that array no rent was frayed by timid souls; Firm was it as the Shāhanshāh’s resolve, strong as the Faith; Their standards brushed against the sky; Verily we have granted thee certain victory. Obeying the cautions of prudence, we imitated the ghāzīs of Rūm by posting matchlockmen (tufanchīān) and cannoneers (ra‘d-andāzān) along the line of carts which were chained to one another in front of us; in fact, Islām’s army was so arrayed and so steadfast that primal Intelligence and the firmament (‘aql-i-pīr u charkh-i-aīr) applauded the marshalling thereof. To affect this arrangement and organization, Niāmu’d-dīn ‘Alī Khalīfa, the pillar of the Imperial fortune, exerted himself strenuously; his efforts were in accord with Destiny, and were approved by his sovereign’s luminous judgment."

"Everything was peaceful until the afternoon of 27 October, when the tribesmen suddenly appeared in their lorries. They took control of the town and an orgy started. Anyone who attempted to argue with them or showed any signs of resistance was shot immediately. This resulted in those residing in the Southern portion of the town fleeing to the Northern part which lay across the Jhelum River. Almost throughout the night there were signs of arson and bursts of firing. The next day, 28 October, groups of tribesmen entered the Northern part of the town and abducted women whom they dragged back to the Southern part. They warned the people to stay in their houses or face death if they stirred out."

"In Hindutva writings (e.g. in Jeevan Kulkarni’s Writ Petition no. 587 of 1989), there is frequent reference to a telegram allegedly sent by the Pakistani raiders to their military headquarters during the invasion of Kashmir in 1948: “All women raped, all Sikhs killed.”"

"[When the Jihadist tribal Mujahidin raided Kashmir in 1947, the girls abducted by the Jihadists] 'were exhibited in the bazaars of Peshawar and Bannu, thereby enticing Pathans towards Kashmir. Many were subjected to unmentionable indignities.'"

"The raiders came to our land, massacred thousands of people -- mostly Hindus and Sikhs, but Muslims too -- abducted thousands of girls, Hindu, Sikhs and Muslims alike, looted our property and almost reached the gates of our summer capital, Srinagar."

"In the month of November (1947), Hindu and Sikh girls brought by Pathan raiders from Kashmir were sold in the bazars of ghulam,” for rupees 10 or so each in the wake of the partition of the country, 1947-48."

"The number of women who have been kidnapped and raped makes my heart bleed. The wild forces thus let loose on the State are marching on with the aim of capturing Srinagar, the summer Capital of my Government, as first step to over-running the whole State [of Kashmir]."

"India had barely become independent, in 1947, when Pakistan invaded Kashmir, which at the time was ruled by a maharajah. The mahara­jah fled, and the people of Kashmir, led by Sheikh Abdullah, asked for Indian help. Lord Mountbatten, who was still governor general, replied that he wouldn’t be able to supply aid to Kashmir unless Pakistan declared war, and he didn’t seem bothered by the fact that the Pakistanis were slaughtering the population. So our leaders decided to sign a document by which they bound themselves to go to war with Pakistan. And Mahatma Gandhi, apostle of nonviolence, signed along with them. Yes, he chose war. He said there was noth­ing else to do. War is inevitable when one must defend somebody or defend oneself."

"The most important departure from determinism during the Cold War had to do, obviously, with hot wars. Prior to 1945, great powers fought great wars so frequently that they seemed to be permanent features of the international landscape: Lenin even relied on them to provide the mechanism by which capitalism would self-destruct. After 1945, however, wars were limited to those between superpowers and smaller powers, as in Korea, Vietnam, and Afghanistan, or to wars among smaller powers like the four Israel and its Arab neighbors fought between 1948 and 1973, or the three India-Pakistan wars of 1947-48, 1965, and 1971, or the long, bloody, and indecisive struggle that consumed Iran and Iraq throughout the 1980s."

"Next year he [Muhammad of Ghor] defeated Jayachandra of Kanauj. A general massacre, rapine, and pillage followed. The Gahadvad treasuries at Asni and Varanasi were plundered. Hasan Nizami rejoices that in Benares which is the centre of the country of Hind, they destroyed one thousand temples and raised mosques on their foundations. According to Kamil-ut-Tawarikh of Ibn Asir, 'The slaughter of Hindus (at Varanasi) was immense; none were spared except women and children, and the carnage of men went on until the earth was weary.' The women and children were spared so that they could be enslaved and sold all over the Islamic world. It may be added that the Buddhist complex at Sarnath was sacked at this time, and the Bhikshus were slaughtered."

"In the Kamilu-t Tawarikh, Ibn Asir records, Shahab-ud-din Ghori, king of Ghazni, sent his slave Kutbu-d-Din to make war against the princes of Hind … the king of Benares was the greatest king in India and possessed the largest territory extending lengthwise from the borders of China to the province of Malawa [Malwa] and in breadth from the sea to within ten days’ journey of Lahore. When he was informed of this inroad, he [king of Benares] collected his forces and in the year 590 [1194 ce], he entered the territories of the Muhammadans …. [T]he Hindu prince had 700 elephants and his men were said to amount to a million. There were many nobles in his army…when the two armies met, there was great carnage…the slaughter of the Hindus was immense; none were spared except women and children, and the carnage of the men went on until the earth was weary … the Hindu king was slain, and no one would have recognized his corpse but for the fact of his teeth, which were weak at their roots, being fastened in with golden wire. After the flight of the Hindus, Shahab-ud-din entered Benares, and carried off its treasures upon fourteen hundred camels."

"Banaras experienced its first Muslim attack in AD 1033, when troops of Ahmad Nialtagin, son of Mahmud of Ghaznavi, suddenly appeared before the city. Banaras was totally devastated in AD 1194 by a Ghurid force led by Qutubuddin Aibak. Hardly a shrine survived the onslaught. Buddhist presence was almost wholly wiped out with the havoc wrought at Sarnath. In the ensuing centuries of Muslim political ascendancy, Banaras' great temples were destroyed several times. The Banaras of the Puranic mahatmyas was completely obliterated; the Krittivasa, Omkara, Mahadeva, Madhyaameshvara, Vishvanath, Bindu Madhava, and Kaal Bhairava temples were all razed. In many cases, mosques were built with "calculated insolence" in their place and the sites closed to Hindus."

"When Kutbu-d dîn beard of the Sultãn’s march from Ghazna, he was much rejoiced and advanced as far as Hãnsî to meet him… In the year AH 592 (AD 1196), they marched towards Thangar, and the centre of idolatry and perdition became the abode of glory and splendour…"

"At first the Hindus fought with success and nearly won the battle; but the issue was decided by the desertion of two Muslim commanders of Rama Raya's army, each in charge of seventy to eighty thousand men."

"Hasan Nizami writes in the Taj-ul-Masir, The Rai of Benares, Jai Chand, the chief of idolatry and perdition, advanced to oppose the royal troops with an army, countless as the particles of sand … the Rai of Benares who prided himself on the number of his forces and war elephants, seated on a lofty howdah, received a deadly wound from an arrow and fell from his exalted seat to the earth. His head was carried on the point of a spear to the commander and his body was thrown to the dust of contempt. The impurities of idolatry were purged by the water of the sword from that land and the country of Hind was freed from vice and superstition. Immense booty was obtained, such as the eye of the beholder would be weary to look at, including one (some copies say three) hundred elephants. The royal army then took possession of the fort of Asni where the treasure of the Rai was deposited …from that place the royal army proceeded towards Benares, which is the centre of the country of Hind, and here they destroyed nearly 1000 temples and raised mosques on their foundations; and the knowledge of the law became promulgated and the foundations of religion were established and the face of the dinar and the diram was adorned with the name and blessed titles of the king. The Rais and Chiefs of Hind came forward to proffer their allegiance. The government of the country was then bestowed to one of the most celebrated and exalted servants of the state in order that he might distribute justice and repress idolatry."

"'The battle took place on Tuesday, 23 January, 1565. The Vijayanagara army commenced attack in right earnest and the right and left wings of the confederate army were thrown into such disorder that their commanders were almost prepared to retreat when the position was saved by Hussain who opposed the enemy with great valour. The fighting was then continued and the loss of life on both sides was heavy. But it did not last long and its fate was determined by the desertion of two Muhammadan commanders under Ramraja. Caesar Frederick, who visited Vijayanagara in 1567, said that each of these commanders had under him seventy to eighty thousand men and the defeat of Vijayanagara was due to their desertion. Ramaraja fell into enemy's hands and was beheaded on the order of Hussain.'120"

"In one day all this power and luxury were destroyed. Slowly the conquering Moslems had made their way south; now the sultans of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golkonda and Bidar united their forces to reduce this last stronghold of the native Hindu kings. Their combined armies met Rama Raja's half-million men at Talikota; the superior numbers of the attackers prevailed; Rama Raja was captured and beheaded in the sight of his followers, and these, losing courage, fled. Nearly a hundred thousand of them were slain in the retreat, until all the streams were colored with their blood. The conquering troops plundered the wealthy capital, and found the booty so abundant "that every private man in the allied army became rich in gold, jewels, effects, tents, arms, horses and slaves." For five months the plunder continued: the victors slaughtered the helpless inhabitants in indiscriminate butchery, emptied the stores and shops, smashed the temples and palaces, and labored at great pains to destroy all the statuary and painting in the city; then they went through the streets with flaming torches, and set fire to all that would burn. When at last they retired, Vijayanagar was as completely ruined as if an earthquake had visited it and had left not a stone upon a stone. It was a destruction ferocious and absolute, typifying that terrible Moslem conquest of India which had begun a thousand years before, and was now complete."

"From that place the royal army proceeded towards Benares, ‘which is in the centre of the country of Hind,’ and here they destroyed nearly one thousand temples, and raised mosques on their foundations; and the knowledge of the law became promulgated, and the foundations of religion were established; ‘and the face of the dinar and the diram was adorned with the name and blessed titles’ of the king. The Rais and chiefs of Hind came forward to proffer their allegiance. ‘The government of that country was bestowed on one of the most celebrated and exalted servants of the State,’ in order that he might distribute justice and repress idolatry."

"The Sultan now received information that there was a city in Hindustan called Thanessar, and there was a great temple there in which there was an idol called Jagarsom, whom the people of Hindustan worshipped. He collected a large force with the object of carrying on a religious war, and in the year AH 402 marched towards Thanessar. The son of Jaipal having received intelligence of this, sent an envoy and represented through him, that if the Sultan would relinquish this enterprise, he would send fifty elephants as tribute. The Sultan paid no heed to this offer, and when he reached Thanessar he found the city empty. The soldiers ravaged and plundered whatever they could lay hands upon, broke the idols and carried Jagarsom to Ghaznin. The Sultan ordered that the idol should the placed in front of the place of prayer, so that people would trample upon it."

"There was a certain tribe in the neighbourhood of Kol which had… occasioned much trouble… ‘Three bastions were raised as high as heaven with their beads, and their carcases became the food of beasts of prey. That tract was freed from idols and idol-worship and the foundations of infidelity were destroyed’…"

"…The town was thus taken by assault, and the carnage endured for three days. The governor of the town, appointed by Dãhir, fled and the priests of the temple were massacred. Muhammad marked a place for the Musalmans to dwell in, built a mosque, and left four thousand Musalmans to garrison the place…"

"THE Arab conquest of Sind is distinct from the Muslim invasions of India proper, which began about three centuries later. But the Sind conquered by Bin Qasim was a big country, roughly the area of present-day southern Pakistan and southern Afghanistan; and the Chachnama might be said to be an account of the Islamic beginnings of the state. But it is a bloody story, and the parts that get into the schoolbooks are the fairy tales. An Arab ship was taking gifts to the caliph; the ship was seized by King Dahar, and Muslims were made captives. The women among them called out, “Hajjaj, save us!” To rescue them (rather than the soldiers captured during the previous Arab expedition), Hajjaj invaded Sind."

"…‘Ambissa son of Ishãk Az Zabbî, the governor of Sindh, in the Khilafat of Mu’tasim billah knocked down the upper part of the minaret of the temple and converted it into a prison. At the same time he began to repair the ruined town with the stones of the minaret…"

"And King Dahar never understood the nature of the war, never understood that more than his throne was at stake. There was for him, in war, an element of chivalry and deadly play. He could have prevented Bin Qasim from crossing the Indus River; it was what he was advised to do. But he thought that undignified. He could have retreated even then, and left the desert to deal with the invaders; it was again what he was advised to do. But again he thought that undignified. He died in battle. Naphtha arrows set the litter on his elephant alight. There were two women servants in the litter, one preparing betel leaves for the king to chew, one passing him arrows; there was also a Brahmin. The elephant, frightened by the fire on its back, plunged into the shallow lake beside the Indus; and mounted Arab archers killed King Dahar while he was still in the litter. Like a warrior, Dahar had gone into battle prepared for death and the funeral pyre. His body, when it was found (betrayed by the Brahmin who had been in the litter), smelled of musk and attar of roses. The women servants were captured; they later identified the king’s severed head for Bin Qasim."

"The sister Dahar had nominally married for the sake of his kingship burned herself to death with other women of her household. Dahar’s real wife (now the property of the Arab caliph and state) was bought by Bin Qasim with part of the loot of Sind. And Dahar’s two daughters were sent in the charge of Abyssinian slaves to the caliph."

"Muhammad Kãsim then entered and all the town people came to the temple of Nobhãr, and prostrated themselves before an idol. Muhammad Kãsim enquired: ‘Whose house is this, in which all the people high and low are respectfully kneeling and bowing down.’ They replied: ‘This is an idol-house called Nobhãr.’ Then, by Muhammad Kãsim’s order, the temple was opened. Entering it with his officers he saw an equestrian statue. The body of the idol was made of marble or alabaster, and it had on its arms golden bracelets, set with jewels and rubies. Muhammad Kãsim stretched his hand and took off a bracelet from one of the idol’s arms. Then he asked the keeper of the Budh temple Nobhãr: ‘Is this your idol?’ ‘Yes,’ he replied, ‘but it had two bracelets on, and one is missing.’ ‘Well’ said Muhammad Kãsim, ‘cannot your god know who has taken away his bracelet?’ The keeper bent his head down. Muhammad Kãsim laughed and returned the bracelet to him, and he fixed it again on the idol’s arm."

"In the year AH 599 (AD 1202), Kutbu-d dîn proceeded to the investment Kãlinjar, on which expedition he was accompanied by the Sãhib-Kirãn, Shamsu-d dîn Altamsh… The temples were converted into mosques and abodes of goodness, and the ejaculations of bead-counters and voices of summoners to prayer ascended to high heaven, and the very name of idolatry was annihilated…"

"They were admitted into the caliph’s harem. He allowed them to rest for a few days. Then he asked for them to be brought to him at night. He wanted to know who was the elder; he wished to take her first. He found out through an interpreter. The elder was called Surijdew. When the caliph tried to embrace her she jumped up and said: “May the king live long! I, a humble slave, am not fit for your majesty’s bedroom, because the just amir, Imaduddin Mohammed Bin Qasim, kept us both with him for three days and then sent us to the caliph. Perhaps your custom is such, or else this disgrace should not be permitted by kings.” The caliph bit his hand. He immediately ordered a letter to be sent to Bin Qasim, ordering him to “put himself in raw leather and come back to the chief seat of the caliph.”"

"From that place [Asni] the royal army proceeded towards Benares ‘which is the centre of the country of Hind’ and here they destroyed nearly one thousand temples, and raised mosques on their foundations; and the knowledge of the law became promulgated, and the foundations of religion were established…"

"'In the year AH 402 (AD 1011) he set out for Thanesar and Jaipal, the son of the former Jaipal, offered him a present of fifty elephants and much treasure. The Sultan, however, was not to be deterred from his purpose; so he refused to accept his present, and seeing Thanesar empty he sacked it and destroyed its idol temples, and took away to Ghaznin, the idol known as Chakarsum on account of which the Hindus had been ruined; and having placed it in his court, caused it to be trampled under foot by the people.."

"Attention shifts now to the Arabs. The narrative alters, becomes more historical, begins to depend on the narrator-chains of Arab history (“It is related by Hazli, who heard it from Tibui son of Musa, who again heard it from his father …”). We are at once in a more organized, more disciplined, and less arbitrary world, a world of law, where men, however anxious for power, fame, and wealth, also serve a cause above themselves. The soldier obeys the general, the general the governor, the governor the caliph; and all serve the Prophet, Islam, and God."

"There are resemblances to the Spanish conquest of Mexico and Peru, and they are not accidental. The Arab conquest of Spain, occurring at the same time as the conquest of Sind, marked Spain. Eight hundred years later, in the New World, the Spanish conquistadores were like Arabs in their faith, fanaticism, toughness, poverty, and greed. The Chachnama is in many ways like The Conquest of New Spain by Bernal Díaz del Castillo, the Spanish soldier who in his old age wrote of his campaigns in Mexico with Cortés in 1519 and after. The theme of both works is the same: the destruction, by an imperialist power with a strong sense of mission and a wide knowledge of the world, of a remote culture that knows only itself and doesn’t begin to understand what it is fighting. The world conquerors, the establishers of long-lived systems, have a wider view; men are bound together by a larger idea. The people to be conquered see less, know less; their stratified or fragmented societies are ready to be taken over. And, interestingly, both in Mexico in 1519 and in Sind in 710 people were weakened by prophecies of conquest."

"The war is far from over. Sind is big, and has many fortified towns. But Debal sets the pattern: the siege, the betrayal by nobles or Brahmins or Buddhist priests who do not believe in killing; the entry by the Arabs; the killing; the checking and distribution of the booty, after the caliph’s fifth has been deducted (and in one place the sharing out of the booty takes as long as the killing)."