Fungiculture

"The mushrooms are ready to pick about the time the veil breaks. ...In picking the mushrooms the best way is to take hold of the plant by the cap. By moving the hand from side to side with a slight circular motion the stem is freed from the soil. ...After picking the mushrooms, wherever the stems have made a little hole in removing them from the earth, a little soil should be added to cover this up again."

"The beds need sprinkling occasionally with tepid water, but should never be made very wet. Insects can largely be avoided by care in securing good manure and in having the premises well cleaned before the beds are made. When mushrooms are grown in successive years in the same place, the place should be given a very thorough cleaning during the summer. All manure and soil is removed, the beds are cleaned out well, and the walls and boards often whitewashed. It perhaps would be well also at this time thoroughly to disinfect the premises with a solution of formalin."

"From the records in ancient history we learn that mushrooms have been esteemed as an important food delicacy from very early times."

"There are numerous species and some of them are poisonous. The species that is cultivated, almost invariably, is the one that grows in the pasture fields. ...The botanical name of this species is Agaricus Campestris."

"The part that is eaten is the fruit or spore-bearing part of an underground fungus. This fungus seems to live upon and among the roots of the grass. The fact that the mushroom is found in greater abundance where cattle are pastured would seem to indicate that the excreta of animals has something to do with their development."

"The action of the fungus as it spreads through the turf has the effect of making the grass turn dark green in color. The habit of growth of the fungus is of such character that the patches spread out in somewhat of a fan shape, which develops into a part of or sometimes a whole circle."

"It seems to be necessary for the soil of the field to become quite dry before the mushrooms develop. Where pastures have become inoculated the mushrooms always appear when there has been sufficient rain, after a long dry spell, to thoroughly moisten the earth. If the rain is continued and the soil becomes well soaked, the mushroom production is checked and no more will be found until the soil has again been through another dry period."

"Many persons are afraid to gather mushrooms for fear that they may get some of the poisonous species. There is not much danger of this if they are gathered in the open pasture. The poisonous species are more generally found in places where there are dead or decaying trees."

"The edible mushroom (Agaricus Campestris) is, after some little observation, easily distinguished from other species. In the pasture fields they vary in diameter from the size of a button to that of a saucer. In the young stage, which is the proper time to gather them, they are white on top and delicate pale pink beneath. As they get older the underneath side, or "gills," turn black."

"The cultivation of the mushroom in an artificial way was attempted centuries ago. It was not until about the seventeenth century, however, that any great headway was made. The French at that time conceived the idea of getting pieces of the fungus and starting it in manure. It is quite probable that they got this idea from observation of the fine mushrooms that will grow in this material when it becomes packed down in a moderately dry shed."

"There is a kind of mushroom spawn grown in England at the present time that is called "Milltrack." It is said to have originated in the tracks of the horses that pulled the horse-power grinding mills."

"Probably the first largest artificial mushroom beds were those made by the gardeners of Paris in the caves beneath that city. Piles of horse manure were used to receive the broken up pieces of the fungus, or spawn as it came to be called. When making new beds the Paris gardeners usually broke up an old bed that had passed the limit of profitable production and used chunks or flakes of it to spawn the new beds."

"The English later on conceived the idea of making brick-shaped pieces of a mixture of horse and cow manure, and under suitable conditions for growth inoculated each brick with other spawn from the milltrack or pasture. This was afterwards allowed to dry and would, when kept dry and cool, remain alive for several months."

"Until about the beginning of the present century all the spawn used in America was imported from England or France. Interest was started in its manufacture here by the work of B.M. Duggar and Miss Ferguson, of the United States Bureau of Plant Industry. They gathered the spores from different mushrooms and produced the mycelium in test tubes filled with horse manure. This was afterwards transferred to the manure bricks and was put on the market as "Pure Culture Spawn." By this method the varieties were isolated and could be kept pure. Since that time mushroom culture has had a great boom."

"The manufacturers of spawn started a very active propaganda by advertising in the magazines. They asserted that mushrooms could be grown in any outhouse or cellar, at the same time giving the impression that any one could be successful and that there were almost unlimited profits in the business. Many have been greatly disappointed, while others, who have had the right conditions for their growth, have been encouraged and made large profits."

"Until now there has been no material discovered that will produce mushrooms as satisfactorily as horse manure. As large quantities are needed and as it is in good condition to produce other crops after the mushrooms have been harvested, the grower should have sufficient land to take care of this."

"Under very special conditions a good crop may be secured without any particular alterations, but as a rule profitable crops will only be secured when the house is built so as to supply the proper amount of heat and moisture."

"It may be possible to select varieties to suit varying conditions."

"Mixing... loam with the horse manure not only prolonged the time the beds produced but also made quite a substantial increase in the yield. It would also seem that the cow manure was so cool in the beginning as to retard the crop as... the cow manure with the soil produced very lightly at the start."

"Covering the beds with straw held the moisture more uniformly, which resulted in a greatly increased production."

"Under dry conditions a rich loam soil when used for "casing" the beds gave better results than a poor sandy or clay soil. Also under rather better moisture conditions the richer materials proved the best."

"The manure from the horse barn produced nearly double the quantity of mushrooms as that from the cow barn."

"Loam mixed with the manure caused an increase in the yield and prolonged the production. Loam also had the effect of decreasing the heat from fermentation when the beds were first made up."

"Many daily readings of the thermometer show that after fermentation of the manure stops, the temperature of the bed will fluctuate with that of the house. This shows the great necessity of having the mushroom house properly warmed and insulated."

"Until the present... nothing has been discovered that is as suitable and available as animal manures. Of these, that of the horse is the best. This, to be entirely suitable, should come from stables where the animals are fed on hard grains and hay. The bedding should be straw and well soaked with urine. Any long unsoiled straw should be taken out. Some of the older growers used to discard practically all of the straw and use nothing but the droppings. Manure from stables where the owners are careless about keeping them clean will often produce a better crop than that from stables where the soiled straw is removed each day and replaced with fresh. Avoid manure from stables where old hay is used for bedding..."

"When manure is placed together in large piles it immediately commences to ferment. This fermentation is needed to put the manure into a proper condition for the mushroom spawn. But, it must be regulated and controlled, or the violent heat would destroy the elements needed for the mushroom's growth. ...If the manure is dry it should be moistened. Just enough water should be used so that when the manure is ready to go into the mushroom house no water can be squeezed out, if a portion is wrung or twisted tightly in the hands. After the manure has been moistened and piled it should be covered with three inches of good soil. ...If it is hot and there are any particles in the center that show evidence of "fire-fanging" it should be turned immediately. Fire fanging is characterized by the strawy particles having a white mouldy appearance. ...At the same time the soil that was spread over the pile should be spread and mixed all through the manure. After a day or two the pile should again be turned. This turning process should be repeated until all the particles have become of a rich coffee-brown color. This will be a week or ten days after the manure is collected, depending upon the season of the year. When the condition of the manure has arrived at this stage no time should be lost in getting it into the beds. Care should be taken in placing the prepared manure on the shelves or beds, that it is spread smoothly and evenly and well packed down. Not less than eight inches and not more than twelve inches will be found the right depth, under ordinary circumstances, for the manure on the shelves or beds."

"The groups of fungi discussed include primarily those which are edible and readily distinguished. They are all economic plants of our woods and fields worthy of being known by every one."

"In a commercial sense... the cultivated mushroom Agaricus campestris, and the allies of this form are everywhere in America the dominant species of interest, and usually the only species of interest; so that among certain classes of persons it is not strange to find a tendency toward such restrictions of the word as to include merely these commoner cultivated forms."

"The use of "mushroom" as the opposite of "toadstool" with respect to edibility is unfortunate,—"mushroom" in this sense denoting any edible species, and "toadstool" all the poisonous ones, or sometimes, indeed, any of the fungi which are not eaten."

"If one should take a full-grown mushroom after the under surface of the cap has become exposed by the breaking away of the annulus, twist the stem until it breaks away from its attachment to the cap, or cut it off short, and then place the cap gill surface downward on a sheet of white paper, there will be found in the course of twenty-four hours, more or less, a print. ...The print obtained is a fairly good reproduction of the projected form of the gills, being composed of a mass of brownish-black powder which has fallen from the gills themselves. It is... for the production of this powdery mass that the mushroom, as we know it, is formed. The brown powder consists of innumerable minute simple cells in the form of ovate bodies, termed "spores." ...They are equivalent to the green powdery substance produced by moulds which grow upon bread, cheese, and the like. Their function is that of reproducing the mushroom, but they should not be termed seeds. ...The entire gill surface is the "hymenium," or spore-bearing layer."

"Although the spores are normally the propagative bodies and undoubtedly serve in the open for the distribution of the species, growers cannot employ these directly in the production of mushrooms. In fact it is difficult to germinate them in the laboratory...Under certain favorable conditions each of these minute cells is, however, capable of germinating and producing first a germ tube, ultimately a filamentous or threadlike growth, known as the mycelium. This mycelium arises from the first small germ tube by subsequent branching and continued ramifications, and under favorable conditions it grows until the rapidly elongating filaments penetrate the substratum in every direction. The growth of the mycelium in any suitable substratum yields a characteristic "spawn," and "spawn" refers merely to this phase of the mushroom growth in visible or extensive quantity. It is appropriately called the vegetative phase. Spawn may also be produced from fragments of the living tissue, if pure culture methods are employed..."

"Mycelia of other fleshy or woody fungi invade a great variety of substrata. Rich earth, moist leaves of the forest floor, fallen timber, and even the trunks of living trees are all invaded by numerous species, each species having certain general habitat requirements."

"When..."spawn" is found in any particular location it may not be easy to name the species from this spawn alone; that is, the "mushroom," or sporophore, is required. True, one may become expert in recognizing kinds of spawn, but the important thing at first is to recognize the mushrooms."

"It would scarcely be practicable to attempt to describe in detail the appearance of "spawn" since that is best gained by experience with it, for once mushrooms are grown and the fresh spawn in the bed examined carefully, there will be no further difficulty in recognizing Agaricus spawn."

"The earlier history of the field agaric in cultivation remains... to be worked up from the scattering references. ...this species was cultivated in France during the reign of Louis XIV, and it is certain also that it was considered a luxury a century or two earlier. Tournefort has left an interesting note, under date of 1707, of the cultural operations of his period. While little was then known of the life relations of the organism, it appears that the requisite conditions for successful culture were clearly appreciated. No mention is made of the cultivation in caves at this time. In fact, it does not appear that the underground quarries in and near Paris, which are now the famous mushroom gardens of the world, were commonly used for growing prior to the beginning of the 19th century. Among the references which can be had from early Greek or Roman authors, however, no evidence has been brought to my attention indicating that any special consideration was accorded this species in those times."

"In France the mushroom industry has fallen heir to the subterranean quarries which now constitute a very extensive array of artificial caves especially under Paris or in its environs. ...In the caves of the suburbs mushrooms are so commonly grown that "champignonière" (mushroom cave) is practically synonymous with "carrière" (cave). The cave systems are very well ventilated by means of chimneys or chutes. The change of air is often facilitated by small charcoal fires beneath these air chutes and occasionally by the use of special ventilating devices."

"Caves or deep cellars have always the advantage of permitting mushroom production during a long period; indeed, frequently throughout the year, but they must offer the possibility of adequate ventilation."

"It is often convenient to construct the house over an excavation which may be at least several feet lower than the natural surface. In building houses of this type, however, arrangement should be made for the utmost convenience in unloading the compost and for cleaning out the old beds. The greatest economy is attained by the construction of houses high enough to accommodate the beds in tiers of from two to five."

"In selecting manure for mushroom work only that which is recognized as of the highest quality should be taken. It is the general experience that considerable bedding straw should be present with the manure, and if good straw it is not likely to contain too much, but even a small quantity of "weeds" is a nuisance. The straw of the various grains seems to possess distinct advantages over that of other grasses, perhaps on account of a certain resistance to complete fermentation, or decay, yielding a highly porous substratum which maintains an excellent physical condition in the beds."

"Manure from animals fed largely upon grass has not proved satisfactory in such tests as have been made, and French experience rules out that obtained from stables employing chiefly leguminous fodders. The French ideal is manure from grain fed animals bedded with rye straw."

"The manure contains many soluble organic substances which invite a vigorous development of mould fungi, if it is not fermented. During the fermentation process the common mould fungi do not, as a rule, develop profusely, but bacterial and direct chemical action is facilitated. The end result is such a stage in the decomposition of the material as will favor the growth of mushroom spawn rather than the mycelia of moulds."

"If fresh stable manure is secured it should be thrown into piles not more than 4 feet high and of any extent desired. ...At first the manure should be thoroughly wet throughout. Subsequently it will be necessary to maintain it in a moist state, and to turn, or fork over, the pile three or four times, or oftener, depending upon the conditions. Under ordinary circumstances if the manure is well moistened it may be properly fermented in three weeks or somewhat less, being turned at intervals of from three to five days. The presence of shavings or sawdust may necessitate a longer fermentation interval..."

"At each turning it should be seen that there is sufficient moisture throughout the pile, and it is usually necessary to water during the turning process, in order that the moisture may reach all parts. With the maintenance of adequate moisture the attainment of a temperature of 140° to 150° F between the first three turnings may be considered advantageous. If there is little moisture, the manure will "burn" easily and it will require a much longer period of fermentation."

"Whether it "burns" or not, the best type of fermentation, as my experiments have repeatedly shown, is obtained only when the temperature remains for several days at a time above 125° F."

""Burning" is indicative of a fairly high temperature combined with a rapid drying out. In a properly arranged compost pile the greatest "burning" will occur just beneath the surface, but it is still a question as to what extent "burning" injures the compost. Certainly a reasonably good yield may be obtained from such material."

"During composting the manure should lose practically all objectionable odor, and with material properly prepared there is no unpleasant feature after the preparation of the beds. Other unmistakable signs of sufficient composting are the oleaginous "feel," the pliability, and the uniform brown color of the straw. Commonly the temperature declines to about 120° or 130° F. As soon as the compost is ready it is desirable to make the beds and to have the spawning follow as promptly as possible...."

"It is... preferable to have the compost made under cover when this is feasible, particularly if prepared during mid-summer or during freezing weather. It should also be stated that manure which has been piled in a barn lot or otherwise subjected to leaching will have lost much of its value. In short, never use for compost anything but the best fresh stable manure and thus you will eliminate many difficulties."