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April 10, 2026
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"Ferns, encompassing approximately 12,000 species (PPG 1, 2016), represent only about 4% of diversity (Mehltreter, 2010); nonetheless, they provide important (Sharpe et al., 2010), and comprise a substantial portion of commercial ornamental plant production as well as horticultural economic development (Hoshizaki and Moran, 2001; Singh and Johari, 2018). Their evolutionary and paleobiological history is extensive beginning in the , approximately 390 million years ago (mya) with expanded diversity during the (65 mya), when s were becoming more dominant (Schneider et al., 2004; Schuettpelz and Pryer, 2009). Ferns were dominant flora in the , later losing space to s and angiosperms. Increasing forests provided suitable protective, shady environments where ferns flourished on the forest floor or as epiphytes on tree trunks and limbs (Watkins and CardelĂşs, 2012). Subsequently, over geological time spans, through adaptation and evolutionary radiation (Sessa, 2018), ferns proliferated to occupy a wide diversity of terrestrial environments; ranging from s and coastal locations to more open s, mountain terrains, and s. Consequently, their and life histories ... have commensurately expanded to include a rich panoply of different life forms, physiological adaptive strategies, and wide global habitats."
"1. s are most prominent in shady and humid environments, but many species are also found in drought-prone habitats, either (semi) arid ecosystems or locations with discontinuous water supply within otherwise humid ecosystems. These locations include tree branches and rocks, both substrates with little water storage capacity. 2. is gained through adaptations in water uptake, water loss, water storage and, in many ferns, , a feature that ferns share with other s. The little information available on the 's efficiency to limit water loss suggests that it may be similar to other s. Thus many ferns, while tolerating desiccation, normally avoid it through low cuticular and tal water loss and may not be considered truly . Exceptions are filmy ferns with very little control of water loss and whose water relations are akin to mosses rather than vascular plants. 3. Other adaptations found in xerophytic ferns include photoprotection with pigments, antioxidants, dense , leaf curling and drought avoidance by shedding leaves in the dry season. (CAM) is a common adaptation of xerophytic angiosperms, but is very rare in ferns. is not strongly developed in xerophytic ferns."
"s differ from s in the principles of their construction and growth. If we examine the base of a leaf-stalk of a tree we shall find a bud there, which, if left alone, will produce a branch or a cluster of fruit the next season. There are no such buds in the axils of fern leaves, not even in those of the , which is peculiarly tree-like in its growth. The growth of a fern is a sort of perpetual lengthening out at both ends. The upward growth, which is more frequently the subject of observation than the growth of the roots, consists first in a process of unrolling, and then of expansion and maturation of the leaves and stems. Because of these and other characters which obviously and without reference to the peculiar nature of their fruit distinguish them from flowering plants, the several parts of a fern are named differently to the corresponding parts in flowering plants. Thus, the true stem or root-stock of a fern is called a ', the true leaf is called a ', the stem which bears the leaf is called the ', and the ramifications of the stipes through the leafy portion corresponding to the leaf-stalks of other plants bears the name of '."
"' is not so happy-looking in cultivation as ', and it is even more troublesome to pack. I took up a large number of roots, sewed them in a flat package, and put them at the bottom of the box with the other Ferns upon them. In this way the fronds were injured, but the roots themselves were unharmed. About I found my first 'âthat loveliest of all our English Fernsâso easy of cultivation, so delicately varied in form, and yet so tenacious of life that the smallest division of the bulbous-looking roots will grow."
"The focus of shifted from simple descriptions to more detailed observations of and when Watt (1940) published the first of his many ecological studies of ' (bracken) in Britain (see Watt, 1976 for a review). Pteridium is an extremely successful colonizer worldwide and can form dense, nearly impenetrable stands. Pteridium generally contains several biochemical compounds such as high levels of s that make it health hazard when eaten by livestock or humans, although the early of New Zealand used ' s as a crop. Where it is unwanted (i.e., considered an invasive weed), Pteridium is difficult to eradicate. Pteridium therefore continues to be an important subject for ecological research (Robinson, 2007). Studies of Pteridium and other abundant ferns have helped to develop an understanding of the complex relationships between ferns and other environments."
"Looking back as far as we can see, in the Rig Veda we find Earth and Heaven often addressed in union as a single being (dyĂĄvĂĄprithivĂ) and honoured together; they are âparents of the godsâ (7.53), âfather and motherâ but also the âtwinsâ (1.159); together they âkeep all creatures safeâ (1.160). ... In fact, the Rig Veda sees the cosmos as a thousand-branched tree (3.8.11, 9.5.10). Building on this symbol, the GĂtĂĄ uses the striking image of the cosmic ashvattha (the pipal or holy fig tree, Ficus religiosa) with its roots above and branches below, to remind us of the real source of this manifestation. Elsewhere in the MahĂĄbhĂĄrata, it is said that he who worships the ashvattha worships the universe: such is the often forgotten concept behind the worship of sacred trees in India, particularly in templesâonce again, the universal at the centre of daily life."
"On thy way hitherward and hence let flowery Durva grass spring up Let there be lakes with lotus blooms. These are the mansions of the flood."
"Drink ye this water, were the words ye spake to them; or drink ye this, the rinsing of the MuĂąja-grass. If ye approve not even this, Sudhanvan's Sons, then at the third libation gladden ye yourselves."
"Mount this, all-shaped, gold-hued, with strong wheels, fashioned of Kimsuka and Salmali, light-rolling, Bound for the world of life immortal, SĹŤrya: make for thy lord a happy bridal journey."
"Around, on every side like drops of sweat let lightning-flashes fall. Let all malevolence pass away from us like threads of Darva grass."
"Not our own will betrayed us, but seduction, thoughtlessness, Varuáša wine, dice, or anger. The old is near to lead astray the younger: even sleep removeth not all evil-doing."
"âŚa peepul tree, a kind of aspen, which strikes its roots into every crack and fissure of a building, and soon loosens the stones. The seeds are carried by birds, and are often deposited on the bark of another tree, where they take root, and completely smother their abode. There is among the natives a superstition that if a man who has planted a tree, dies in debt, the creditor comes in the form of a peepul, roots itself in the tree and destroys it."
"Cool, Agni, and again refresh the spot which thou hast scorched and burnt. Here let the water-lily grow, and tender grass and leafy herb."
"They said, âBut that also is, as it were, recondite. Make thyself rather an upper arani of Asvattha wood, and a lower arani of Asvattha wood: the fire which shall result thereform will be that very fire.â XI.5.1.16 He then made himself an upper arani of Asvattha wood, and a lower arani of Asvattha wood; and the fire which resulted therefrom was that very fire: by offering therewith he became one of the Gandharvas. Let him therefore make himself and upper and a lower arani of Asvattha wood, and the fire which results therefrom will be that very fire: by offering therewith he becomes one of the Gandharvas.â"
"They said, âCook for a whole year a mess of rice sufficient for four persons; and taking each time three logs from this Asvattha tree, anoint them with ghee, and put them on the fire with verses containing the words âlogâ and âgheeâ: the fire which shall result therefrom will be that very fire (which is required)."
"The Holy Fig tree is your home, your mansion is the Parna tree: Winners of cattle shall ye be if ye regain for me this man."
"Tryambaka we worship, sweet augmenter of prosperity. As from its stem the cucumber, so may I be released from death, not reft of immortality."
"Sara grass, Darbha, KuĹara, and Sairya, MuĂąja, VÄŤraáša, Where all these creatures dwell unseen, with poison have infected me."
"Ride hither to the offering of the pleasant juice, the holy Fig-tree which victorious priests surround: victorious be they still for us. At once the cows yield milk, the barley-meal is dressed. For thee, O VÄyu, never shall the cows grow thin, never for thee shall they be dry."
"Forth from mid air with light he dravc the darkness, as the gale blows a lily from the fiver. Like the wind grasping at the cloud of Vala, Bášhaspati gathered to himself the cattle."
"SPRUNG from tall trees on windy heights, these rollers transport me as they turn upon the table. Dearer to me the die that never slumbers than the deep draught of Mujavan's own Soma."
"Enclose thee in the heart of Khayar timber, in the car wrought of Sinsapa put firmness. Show thyself strong, O Axle, fixed and strengthened: throw us not from the car whereon we travel."
"The poison that is formed upon the Salmali, that which is found in streams, that which the plants produce, All this may all the Gods banish and drive away: let not the winding worm touch me and wound my foot."
"Often called "oatmeal," are readily available in our s and have been for some time. To roll oats, the mass manufacturers first hull the s, steam them, and then pass them through rollers, therefore transforming them into flakes. In fact, "oat flakes" would be a much better popular name than "oatmeal." The thickness of the flakes varies, with the thickest being called "old-fashioned oats." (Actually, some of the rolled oats sold in s, billed as table-cut oats, may be a little thicker than regular supermarket old-fashioned.) The thicker rolled oats take the longest to cook. Thinner oats are usually billed as "quick" or "instant," ..."
"Oat is among the most versatile grain in the family , though it is used primarily for livestock feed and human consumption. Several oat species, such as ' (common oats), ' (Algerian or red oat), ' (naked oats), and ' (sterile or animated oat), are produced commercially and together account for oats being the seventh most grown cereal globally. Viral genera across the families , , , and often cause diseases in oat species, thus causing moderate to severe yield losses annually. In this chapter, we explore the transmission mechanisms of the most important viruses that pose threats to production of oats. Current methods for identifying viruses include purification by nucleic acid assays, symptomatology, and electron microscopyâbased, physical examination and serology. Early diagnosis of viral agents causing diseases plays an important role in the management of plant diseases."
"Oats are grown in the s worldwide and based on production, oats are the seventh most important crop. Oat grains are distinct from other cereals due to their high content of soluble , specifically and s. Oats also contain specific bioactive compounds called s. Oats are used primarily for animal feed, but food use of oats has been increasing as a part of the shift to plant-based diets and protein sources. Milling processes for producing oat groats, flakes, and flour include kilning for inactivation of lipid-degrading enzymes. Oats are used typically in flakes, cereals, and bakery products, but emerging areas are dairy and meat substitutes. Oats are an interesting raw material for various plant-based foods due to their relatively good amino acid composition, gluten-free status, and health claims of oat β-glucan as well as mild flavor and light color."
"Practically four-fifths of the oat crop of the United States is produced in the thirteen States extending from and Pennsylvania westward to , , , and Kansas. Each of these States annually devotes more than a million acres to oats. The average yield in the six northernmost States, New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, North Dakota, and South Dakota, is 31.68 bushels to the acre, while their total production is slightly less than one-third of the oat crop of this country. The average yield of the other seven States, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Nebraska, and Kansas, is only 29.23 s to the , yet they produce more than half of the entire crop. ... Oats are grown in the , which includes all the States of the second group, largely because a small-grain crop is needed in the and because the grain is desired for feeding to work stock. is seldom satisfactory in this district, and winter crops often do not fit well into a rotation which ordinarily includes corn, a small grain, and grass. Under these conditions oats are generally grown as the best crop between corn and grass. This is particularly true in Illinois and Iowa, the two States producing the greatest quantifies of both corn and oats."
"Oats constitute one of the most important field crops of New York State. According to the statistics for different crops in 1912, taken from the Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture, the oat crop was third in farm value in New York State. Hay ranked first ... potatoes seconds ... and oats third ... â New York ranking eleventh in oat production in the United States. ... Oats are valuable to farmers because they fit in well with the many systems of used in this State. Oats are also much used as a when land is to seeded to grass; the value of such a crop is doubtful, however, for many s are robber crops."
"The country of origin of oats is more difficult to localise than that of either wheat or barley. There is considerable evidence that wild forms of the genus were prevalent in South and South-East Europe and along the littoral of from early times. The plant in those regions and periods, however, was cultivated almost exclusively for use as , and it may be for this reason that representations of the grain, so frequently found on coins of the period in the case of wheat and barley, are so rare or entirely absent in the case of oats. ... states that the and did not cultivate oats and that there is no Sanskrit name or any name in modern for the genus."
"Northern countries like Finland, Canada, and Scotland have a long tradition of using oats in a variety of foods. Even in these countries, however, the consumption of oats is low in comparison with that of other s. Processing of oats is required to provide edible products that are stable in storage and have good sensory properties. "Grandmothers's" s contain a variety of oat recipes that form the traditional foods that are the basis of current food uses, namely, , bread, fermented oat , and flour made of boiled, lightly smoked oats. Traditionally, oats are used as whole grains. The development of new ingredients, such as various milling fractions (i.e., bran, flour, and hulls) and enriched fraction (i.e., , , and ), started in the 1980s in responed to accumulating evidence of the health benefits of oat ."
"Oats is one of the most important grain crops in the . In the United States this crop is exceeded in area and value only by corn and wheat, while in Canada it is even more generally grown than in the United States. In Great Britain and Ireland the acreage devoted to oats is little less than that devoted to all other grain crops. In Germany it exceeds the combined acreage of wheat and barley and is second only to rye. In all the countries of northern Europe the oat crop occupies an important place. ... ... Like several of our cultivated plants, this grain was carried westward from its place of origin in western Asia and eastern Europe by the migrations of the inhabitants of that region early in the Christian era. It is probable that oats were first used for feeding animals and that their use as human food was confined to times when other grain or food was scarce. Its general use as food for man is evidently of recent origin and is due to the development of milling machinery."
"During the 20th century, the economic position of oats (' ) decreased strongly in favour of higher yielding crops including and maize. Presently, oat represents only ~ 1.3% of the total world grain production, and its production system is fragmented. Nonetheless, current interest is growing because of recent knowledge on its potential benefits in food, feed and agriculture. ... Five approved (EFSA) health claims apply to oats. Four relate to the oat-specific soluble fibres, the s, and concern the maintenance and reduction of , better blood glucose balance and increased faecal bulk. The fifth claim concerns the high content of unsaturated fatty acids, especially present in the endosperm, which reduces the risks of heart and vascular diseases. Furthermore, oat starch has a low , which is favourable for weight control. Oat-specific s and s have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Thus, oats can contribute significantly to the presently recommended whole-grain diet."
""" (mustard) is central to our Indian culture. The yellow mustard flower is the symbol of spring. Songs on the theme of sarson are an integral part of . Mustard oil is the of Bihar, Bengal, Orissa and and is used for flavoring and cooking."
"' var. rugosa, often known as a leafy mustard/ laipatta, is a tall, slow-growing mustard with beautiful green leaves that ranges in hue from light green to dark purple. Itâs a green leafy vegetable native to Central and Eastern Asia thatâs eaten all across the world, from China to . Leafy mustard is grown and supplied mostly in Asian nations such as India, China, and Japan. ... Peppery, crispy leafy mustard features broad, soft leaves with high moisture content and a thick, flexible stem that may be used to make , and its seed is also used as a pickle and curry spice. Green leaves can be eaten raw or cooked in salads. They are high in a variety of phytonutrients such as vitamin A, B, C, and E, as well as iron, calcium, and protein ... Leafy mustard is also used to make a fermented pickle product known as which is a well-known and widely enjoyed Nepali meal. The mustard plant is most recognised for its tiny yellowish seeds, which produce mustard, one of the worldâs most popular condiments. However, a variety of cultures have used the plantâs green leaves for food and health purposes for ages ..."
"... Three varieties are in popular use â Brassica alba, Brassica juncea and Brassica nigra. ... Mustard is among the oldest recorded spices as seen in records dating back to about 3000 (Mehra, 1968) and was one of the first domesticated crops. Originally it was the condiment that was known as mustard and the word was derived from the Latin mustum. Must, the expressed juice of grapes or other fruits mixed with ground mustard seeds to form mustum ardens ('hot or burning must) was a Roman speciality condiment. Romans' love for mustard carried the same throughout Europe where it became popular for seasoning meat and fish. ... Most mustard was prepared in the early days by pounding the seeds in a and moistening them with ."
"Almost any good soil will produce a crop of mustard. The basal leaves of mustard are used for greens, and as plants require but a short time to reach the proper stage for use frequent sowings should be made. Sow the seeds thickly in drills as early as possible in the spring, or for late use sow the seeds in September or October. The forms of white mustard, of which the leaves are often curled and frilled, are generally used. Mustard greens are cooked like ."
"... Historically, buckwheat was an appreciated crop because of its short growth period, moderate requirements for growth conditions, and high adaptability to adverse environments. Nowadays, interest in buckwheat-based food has increased because of its nutritional composition and many beneficial properties for human health. Buckwheat is a rich course of proteins, dietary fibers, vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds, including s. Moreover, it contains no and can be used in the production of gluten-free foods for individuals diagnosed with , non-celiac gluten sensitivity, or wheat protein allergies. Buckwheat is traditionally used in the production of various foods and can be successfully incorporated into various new food formulations with positive effects on their nutritional value and attractive sensory properties."
"Mustard seeds come in three species identified by their colours: yellow, brown and black. Yellow or white mustard (', also called Brassica hirta) is best known as the main ingredient in the mustard that flavours North America's traditional hot dog. Brown mustard, ' has a dark brown seed coat and is used in the manufacturing of Dijon-style mustards. Brown mustard is used in combination with yellow in the making of English-style mustard. What we call oriental mustard is the golden yellow seed coat version of Brassica juncea. The main market for oriental mustard is South and East Asia, where it is used as a condiment in and as a source of cooking oil in some other countries, especially India and Nepal. ... Black mustard (') is native to tropical regions of North Africa, temperate regions of Europe and parts of Asia. It is the type that is commonly used in Indian cuisine and Chinese medicine and the one that is mentioned in the and in many historical recipes."
"20 And Jesus said unto them, Because of your unbelief: for verily I say unto you, If ye have faith as a grain of mustard seed, ye shall say unto this mountain, Remove hence to yonder place; and it shall remove; and nothing shall be impossible unto you."
"... Buckwheat does not belong in any regular . It is an ideal grain . When a meadow or a grain field in the regular rotation fails there is no better crop to fill up the loss. Buckwheat is a good cropâthere is no better where climatic conditions are rightâto sow on new ground or ground that has long been out of cultivation. On poor ground there is no grain crop that can compete with it."
"The weather was already growing wintry, and morning frosts congealed an earth saturated by autumn rains. The verdure had thickened and its bright green stood out sharply against the brownish strips of trodden down by the cattle, and against the pale-yellow stubble of the spring buckwheat."
"The grain of rye is darker in color than that of wheat, but is otherwise similar in appearance. Rye flour differs from wheat flour in flavor, the liking for the one or the other being a matter of preference. It differs, however, in another way and in an important particularâits gluten has not the same elastic, tenacious quality and does not yield so light and well-raised a loaf. Although this fact and its dark color make it less popular than wheat, it is second in importance as a breadstuff. It is more easily raised than wheat, especially in cold countries, and therefore has a lower market value. In many parts of Europe it practically replaces wheat among the poor and in army rations. When it is milled entire, as it usually is, it contains more protein than wheat flour, but is probably less completely digested. Wheat and rye flour are often used together in bread making."
"... Of the eight major s, rye was eighth in production during the late 1980s and the 1990s ... Rye is a highly versatile crop. As a green plant, it is used as and as in s; as grain, it is used for livestock feed and as feedstock in ; and as , it is used in breads and many other s. Of the cereal flours, only wheat and rye can be used successfully in production of bread. Rye is considered inferior to wheat in production of high-volume pan breads, because its dough lacks essential elasticity and gas-retention properties. Rye flour can be used alone to produce âblackâ bread, which is consumed extensively in eastern Europe and parts of Asia. In many countries, âlight-ryeâ breads are made from rye and wheat flours mixed in varying proportions. The characteristic flavor of rye is liked by many people. Small quantities of rye are used in production of baked specialty products, such as s and s. Substantial quantities of rye grain are also used in production of s. Rye is the acknowledged trademark of ."
"It was that time of the year, the turning-point of summer, when the crops of the present year are a certainty, when one begins to think of the sowing for next year, and the mowing is at hand; when the rye is all in ear, though its ears are still light, not yet full, and it waves in gray-green billows in the wind ..."
"As fall and early spring pasture, rye is especially valuable. Sown August 20th to September 15th it affords a considerable amount of pasturage until late in the fall, and is practically certain to live over winter, renewing its growth in the spring, providing the earliest of spring pasture. While all kinds of stock relish rye as spring pasture, and do well on it, milk from cows allowed full feed on luxuriant rye pasture will be likely to ill flavored. The green crop may be used for soiling purposes, or as a green manure crop."
"The is cultivated in the cooler and more mountainous regions of Asia and to some extent in Canada and Maine. It is recommended for its superior hardiness. ... The grain is smaller than the common buckwheat, the plants are more slender and the leaves arrow-shaped. It is sometimes called India wheat and duckwheat. The true buckwheat has bright, white or pink-tinged flowers in large trusses or heads; the India wheat has smaller greenish white flowers in small heads, and also small leaves. ... The common buckwheat (') is the most valuable and most widely grown form. It is met with wild in China and Siberia and enters into the agriculture of every country where grain crops are cultivated. In China it has been grown and used for food from time immemorial. In Japan it is held in general esteem and in Russia it is also largely consumed. It has been cultivated for centuries in England, France, Spain, Italy and Germany."
"BUCKWHEAT CAKES. A quart of buckwheat meal. A handful of . A tea-spoonful of salt. A large table-spoonful of the strongest and freshest . Sufficient water to mix a batter. The only way of using buckwheat meal is for thin flat batter-cakes resembling s. Buckwheat in grains or unground, is good food for poultry. When in blossom, its flowers (which are small and white) are very fragrant, and much liked by bees; to whose honey it gives a delicious flavor."
", the most serious disease of rye, causes severe losses. This disease is characterized by large purple-black bodies that replace some of the rye kernels in the head. Ergot can be controlled by sowing ergot-free seed on land that has not been cropped to rye for at least 2 years. Ergot loses its viability after a year; if year-old seed is sown, there is little likelihood of infection. Ergot is poisonous to humans and to . If must be removed from rye grain that is to be used for feed or for milling. ... and attack rye but are not serious because crops usually mature before the damage becomes significant. can be destructive to rye, but rarely occurs. causes stunted growth and premature ripening of the rye plant. It is particularly severe in the East South Central and South Atlantic States."