"A number of fallacies used deliberately in attempts to urge unreasoned commitment fall under the general classification of irrelevant evidence. ...Whenever personalities, motives, insinuating remarks about reputation, personal habits, and the like are introduced... the argument will bear watching. Ad hominem, the practice of directing the argument to the man rather than to the merits of the proposal, is both ancient and popular. Argumentum ad misericordiam...direct appeal to the emotions of pity rather than to the points or merit of the case. ...Argumentum ad ignorantium is the name given to the fallacy of shifting the burden of proof... by noting that one's opponents are unable to produce positive evidence in disproof... especially disconcerting when used in connection with nonverifiable propositions involving religious or metaphysical concepts. ...It takes real courage to resist it when combined with Argumentum ad populum, an appeal to popular feelings, passion or prejudice, or with Argumentum ad verecundiam, a reference to the fact that highly respected persons, organizations, or authorities in other fields have endorsed it. All such fallacies, when used as devices for short-cutting reflection, depend for their success on ignoratio elenchi, ignorance of what constitutes refutation or substantiation of the point at issue. ...Information about correct and incorrect forms of reasoning is not enough to immunize one against clever appeals to one's emotions and prejudices."