"Emotions prepare us for action. They motivate seeking out rewarding stimuli, increasing alert-ness and avoiding threat (Bernhardt and Singer, 2012). Fear has a strong developmental and evolu-tionary function as a primordial reaction to danger that elicits a distinctive physiological and psycho-logical response. The endocrine system releases epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol that excites the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, and releases glucose into the bloodstream, preparing the body for physical action (Rodrigues et al., 2009). A concomitant increase in attentional vigilance (Fi-nucane, 2011) and a bias toward threatening stimuli (Öhman et al., 2001) serve to heighten perceptual awareness, and learning/memory mechanisms (Öhman and Mineka, 2001). Fear is associated with changes in both the central and peripheral nervous system (Ekman, 1992; Kreibig, 2010; Nummenmaa and Saarimäki, 2017; Panksepp, 1982) and is also characterized by an idiosyncratic subjective experi-ence (Nummenmaa et al., 2014a, Nummenmaa et al., 2014b; Nummenmaa et al., 2018b, Nummenmaa et al., 2018a; Volynets et al., 2019) and overt expression (Smith et al., 2005)."