architecture

"From around 1600 to 1750, the Baroque period witnessed the creation of some of the greatest musical masterpieces ever composed."

"To judge of the past from the present, let us take the English nation in India. It has held India for a longer period than the Greeks did Bactria from the time of Alexander to that of As'oka, but yet it has produced no appreciable effect on the architecture of its neighbours. The Bhutanese and the Sikimites have not yet borrowed a single English moulding. The Nepalese, under the administration of Sir Jung Bahadur, are not a whit behind-hand of As ́oka and his people; Sir Jung went to Europe, which As'oka never did; still there is no change perceptible in Nepalese architecture indicative of a European amalgamation. The Kashmiris and the Afghans have proved equally conservative, and so have the Burmese. But to turn from their neighbours to the people of Hindustan : these have had intimate intercourse with Europeans now for over three hundred years, and enjoyed the blessings of English rule for over a century, and yet they have not produced a single temple built in the Saxon, or any other European style. Thus the conclusion we are called upon to accept is that what has not been accomplished by the intimate intercourse of three centuries, and the absolute sovereignty of a century, in these days of railways, and electric telegraphs, and mass education, was effected by the Greeks two thousand years ago simply by living as distant neighbours for eighty years or so."

"The greatness of this people was attested by "the gigantic grandeur and durability of Egyptian and Indian architecture in contradistinction to the fragile littleness of modem buildings. This consideration will enable us," he continued, "by analogy to grasp the idea . . . that all these famous nations sprang from one stock, and that their colonies were all one people directly or indirectly, of Indian origin.... ""

"There are some parts of the world that, once visited, get into your heart and won’t go. For me, India is such a place. When I first visited, I was stunned by the richness of the land, by its lush beauty and exotic architecture, by its ability to overload the senses with the pure, concentrated intensity of its colors, smells, tastes, and sounds. It was as if all my life I had been seeing the world in black and white and, when brought face-to-face with India, experienced everything re-rendered in brilliant technicolor."

"REST! This little Fountain runs Thus for aye:—It never stays For the look of summer suns, Nor the cold of winter days Whosoe’er shall wander near, When the Syrian heat is worst, Let him hither come, nor fear Lest he may not slake his thirst: He will find this little river Running still, as bright as ever. Let him drink, and onward hie, Bearing but in thought that I, EROTAS, bade the Naiad fall, And thank the great god Pan for all!"

"From Evereven’s lofty hills where softly silver fountains fall his wings him bore, a wandering light, beyond the mighty Mountain Wall."

"And in the midst of all, a fountaine stood, Of richest substaunce, that on earth might bee, So pure and shiny, that the siluer flood Through euery channell running one might see; Most goodly it with curious imageree Was ouer-wrought, and shapes of naked boyes, Of which some seemd with liuely iollitee, To fly about, playing their wanton toyes, Whilest others did them selues embay in liquid ioyes.And ouer all, of purest gold was spred, A trayle of yuie in his natiue hew: For the rich mettall was so coloured, That wight, who did not well auis’d it vew, Would surely deeme it to be yuie trew: Low his lasciuious armes adown did creepe, That themselues dipping in the siluer dew, Their fleecy flowres they tenderly did steepe, Which drops of Christall seemd for wantones to weepe.Infinit streames continually did well Out of this fountaine, sweet and faire to see, The which into an ample lauer fell, And shortly grew to so great quantitie, That like a little lake it seemd to bee; Whose depth exceeded not three cubits hight, That through the waues one might the bottom see, All pau’d beneath with Iaspar shining bright, That seemd the fountaine in that sea did sayle vpright.And all the margent round about was set, With shady Laurell trees, thence to defend The sunny beames, which on the billowes bet, And those which therein bathed, mote offend. As Guyon hapned by the same to wend, Two naked Damzelles he therein espyde, Which therein bathing, seemed to contend, And wrestle wantonly, ne car’d to hyde, Their dainty parts from vew of any, which them eyde."

"Aqueducts were a combination of beauty and stability, quintessentially Roman, being practical and monumental at the same time."

"... the Roman prudence was more particularly employed on matters which had received but little attention from the Greeks, such as paving their roads, constructing aqueducts, and sewers, to convey the sewage of the city into the Tiber. In fact, they have paved the roads, cut through hills, and filled up valleys, so that the merchandise may be conveyed by carriage from the ports. The sewers, arched over with hewn stones, are large enough in some parts for waggons loaded with hay to pass through; while so plentiful is the supply of water from the aqueducts, that rivers may be said to flow through the city and the sewers, and almost every house is furnished with water-pipes and copious fountains."

"The extraordinary greatness of the Roman Empire manifests itself above all in three things: the aqueducts, the paved roads, and the construction of the drains."

"But let us now turn our attention to some marvels that, if justly appreciated, may be pronounced to remain unsurpassed... If we take into account the abundant supply of water to the public, for baths, ponds, canals, household purposes, gardens, places in the suburbs and country houses, and then reflect upon the distances that are traversed from the sources on the hills, the arches that have been constructed, the mountains pierced, the valleys leveled, we must perforce admit that there is nothing more worthy of our admiration throughout the whole universe."

"The... structure is made of high-strength [cement,] Reinforced... Concrete... in the form of hyperbolic thin shell standing on diagonal, meridional, or vertical supporting columns and radial supports. The shell is sufficiently stiffened by upper and lower edge members."

"[T]he most preferred method of the modeling and analysis of NDCT [natural draft cooling towers] is [the] (FEM)."

"[T]he first cooling tower shell [to be] analyzed by means of a shell bending theory [was in 1967]."

"The in-plane membrane actions primarily resist the applied forces and plays the secondary role in these special structures."

"Russian engineers made many new and stimulating contributions to the design and construction of multiple-span lattice metal bridges, a great number of which were needed in railway work because of the multitude of large rivers in Russia. Ferro-concrete was first used in buildings there at the beginning of the twentieth century. Russian engineers... made their own contribution to the development of structural techniques in this area."

"The first hyperboloid shaped cooling tower was introduced by the Dutch engineers and Gerard Kuypers and built in 1918 near having 35 meter height."

"Determination [utilizing nonlinear static analysis] of the ultimate strength of the cooling towers... subjected to the severe quasistatic wind loads is one of the [research] objectives... for... structural engineers. Various nonlinear factors, such as the material nonlinearities in the concrete and reinforcing steel, tensile cracking, the bond effects between concrete and steel in the cracked concrete which is known as the tension stiffening, the large displacement effects, and so on; need to be taken into account..."

"[A] series of kinetic structures which are capable of geometric transformations have been developed. ...[T]he most impressive ones are deployable bar structures with [a] single degree-of-freedom ...These structures ...may become stable and carry loads ...Therefore ...may offer viable solutions for architectural applications, especially for temporary buildings, emergency shelters, exhibition halls, outdoor recreation facilities or sporting fields ...[M]ost of them are composed of scissor like elements (SLEs) ...which is a complex structural system ...[P]resent solutions are insufficient to constitute real form flexibility, because they are limited to... forms such as singly-curved vaults and doubly-curved synclastic s."

"According to Elizabeth C. English, there was a direct connection between the mathematical discoveries of Lobachevsky and the structural explorations of"

"An analysis of the design and construction of the NiGRES tower on the Oka... The initial ensemble of four electricity transmission masts represents the consummation of Shukhov's tower construction method. Only one... remains... today."

"In 1829... Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky published a disproof of Euclid's fifth or using the case of a doubly curved surface, thereby establishing non-Euclidean geometry."

"[T]he diagrid form could support both the gravity loads and the lateral loads without requiring additional means. In comparison, the new skyscraper types that were under development at this time used a steel frame to support the gravity loads... while the central core provided the stiffness required to resist wind loads. Where additional resistance was required, it was usually the core that carried the bracing."

"Forms of spanning which have come into use in recent years were foreshadowed in various forms of latticed structures designed by Shukhov before the end of the last century—guyed structures, the spanning of dual curves by structures of standardized rods, the provision of curved 'hyperbolic' profiles by means of a straight component, using straight rods in Shukhov's case."

"The creative principles of innovative trends such as Rationalism and Constructivism were well understood by engineers and constructors bent on applying the latest technological achievements. Great engineers such as Shukhov, [Artur] Loleit and [Hermann] Krasin, were happy to work with innovative architects. They jointly explored new ways of developing architecture, and engineers became active members of Asnova and Osna. ...In the twenties... Soviet architecture set tasks for the building industry which prompted the employment of new materials and structural elements, and raised building standards. Engineering technology in the building industry achieved great successes during this period, such as the metal structures by Shukhov and Krasin, Loleit's work in the field of ferro-concrete, the elaboration of modern timber work by Karlson and the production of new hyperbolic paraboloid roofing by Markarova. The very latest structures and building materials, as well as modern production methods, were applied in the construction of engineering and industrial buildings such as Shukhov's radio tower in Moscow in 1922 and Krasin's viaduct at the Shatura power station in 1925."

"[H]yperbolic s are associated with nuclear and thermal power plants... they are also used... in some large chemical and other industrial plants. [T]hey are high rise structures in the form of doubly curved thin walled shells of complex geometry..."

"The hyperbolic geometry has advantage of a negative which makes it superior in stability against external pressures..."

"The widened bottom of the tower accommodates large installation of fill to facilitate the evaporative cooling of the thin film of circulated water. Narrowing effect of the tower accelerates the of evaporation and diverging top promotes turbulent mixing which increases the contact between hot inside air and cooler outside air."

"[T]o achieve sufficient resistance against instability, large cooling tower shells may be stiffened by additional internal or external rings which may also be used as repair or rehabilitation..."

"The hyperbolic form of thin-walled towers provides optimum conditions for good aerodynamics, strength, and stability."

"The chapter "Geometry and form of hyperbolic lattice structures"... deals with the form and geometry... A precise description of the mathematical principles of a one-sheeted hyperboloid precedes an explanation of the parametrisation..."

"The final chapter "Towers in comparison"... contains an extensive table and drawings of 18 towers."

"The "idea of the " and the first... diagrid structure have been credited to... Shukhov. The design evolved as an efficient and easily constructed tower for carrying a large gravity load... a water tower. The "Shukhov Tower"... 1896, relies on the use of a diagonal lattice of steel angles, constrained laterally... by steel rings. ...The tower is hollow, requiring little resistance to wind loads ..."

"This book presents the results of the first ever extensive analysis of the way these structures work."

"Particular attention is paid to evaluation and analysis of Shukhov's tower calculations and the assumptions made for the structural model. His historical calculations are compared to the results of modern calculations."

"This form of construction, which had no predecessors... is notable for its strength and economy of materials. Added to this is the high visual impact..."

"The object of this book is gain deeper knowledge on the architectural history of hyperbolic structures. The focus of the investigation is the first hyperbolic lattice towers ever built, the work of... Shukhov."

"The of a one-sheeted hyperboloid is resolved into three different mesh variants to create open lattices and their structural behaviour investigated."

"A paper by Peter de Vries discussed the stiffness of simple hyperbolic lattice structures and highlighted a single connection between geometry and structural behaviour. The focus... is... on a simple form of hyperbolic lattice structure which always has the intermediate rings positioned at intersection points of the lattice members."

"[T]he form and structure of the Sukhov-built towers were developed not on geometrical or constructional criteria alone, their designs specifically took into account considerations."

"[T]he chapter "Structural analysis and calculation methods"... considers the principle means of transfer of vertical and horizontal loads and describes the interactions between geometry and structural behaviour. Then... an explanation of the theoretical principles of determining a lattice tower's ultimate load capacity."

"The chapter "Design and analysis of Sukhov's towers"... is devoted to consideration and analysis of Sukhov's structural calculations... Sukhov's design process is reconstructed based on... calculations of five different water towers. From... tables stored in the Moscow city archives, a summary... is produced to chart the development of the towers over more than three decades..."

"It is hoped that the examination of Sukhov's form of construction made public in this book will give an impetus to new applications in architecture."

"[A] new reconfigurable doubly-curved structure has been developed for a canopy roof."

"Due to... complexity... doubly-curved anticlastic surfaces such as hyperboloid and hyperbolic paraboloid (HP) have been rarely used for deployable structures. In fact, anticlastic structures can be easily constructed using simple straight bars rather than SLEs since their geometric forms can be generated by s..."

"[A]nticlastic structures are capable of resisting... various design loads through their curvatures and twists. Thus, their structural efficiency is more than ...others. ...[W]e have decided to use HP ...as a [deployable] canopy roof structure."

"Although the slender steel sections, when formed into the hyperbolic paraboloid shape, did undergo some bending, a diagrid shape emerges, using a combination of straight segments that are joined at their nodal points of intersection."

"The Shukhov towers tended to use much longer steel sections and overlap them at their crosspoints, rather than using the crosspoints as "nodes" in the fashion of later or spaceframe structures."

"The School of Engineering and Construction which came into being in Russia after the reforms of the 1860s, and in connection with large-scale railway construction towards the end of the nineteenth century, soon acquired a worldwide reputation. It produced distinguished theorists and practitioners who included Belelyubsky, Loleit, Proskuryakov, Shukhov and Yasinsky. The engineering work incorporated in the most diverse kinds of buildings in Russia during the last quarter-century before the Revolution show that this country not only kept pace with the more developed parts of Europe and the USA, but outstripped them in certain fields, in terms of engineering design, as well as the use of modern construction techniques and new materials. Thus Shukhov produced many original designs unparalleled in work done abroad. At the Nizhny-Novgorod Exhibition in 1896... several original designs by Shukhov appeared, the most important of which were latticed: suspended latticed roofs for exhibition halls with a circular, elliptical and rectangular ground plan, latticed roof vaults and hyperbolic latticed towers. This category of structure also included the dual curvature roof designed by Shukhov in 1897-98 to cover the workshop at the Vykhsusnk factory."

"Even today, Shukhov's load-bearing system can be found in one form or another in architecture..."