Sociology

"Between 1991 and 2001, the number of American adults who participated in hunting declined by 7 per cent whereas the adult population increased by 12 per cent (US Department of Interior 2002). This decline appears superficially to favour ecotourism, but the situation is complicated by the fact that the pro-hunting s are a major force in the preservation of North American s that harbour s and other wildlife that are also attractive to ecotourists."

"Ecotourism arguably would not exist, and certainly would not exist in the form it is now, were it not for the active involvement of the academic community. s and academia have played a critical stewardship role in the conceptualization and operationalization of this activity, more so than any other form of tourism. Ecotourism has evolved, and is still evolving through three phases. The ‘New Dawn’ phase is typified by idealism, hyperbole and hope. It is followed quickly by a ‘Crisis of Legitimacy’, where critics illustrate that the ecotourism largely fails to meet its social, economic and ecological ideals, that has not yet been resolved fully. Finally, ecotourism reaches maturity when it achieves the ‘Sustainable Product Niche’ phase where a understanding of what it can and cannot do, emerges."

"Ecotourism began to gain prominence in the late and exploded in the , due to several factors such as (i) being an alternative to mass tourism, (ii) being seen as a form of "sustainable development", especially in tropical and/or developing countries and regions such as Latin America, and Africa, (iii) providing spaces for recreation, leisure, sport and tourism that provide reconnection with nature, and (iv) promising sustainable use for s, s and other types of protected areas (Eagles and McCool, 2002; Cunha and Costa, 2018)."

"Aim To review infections associated with adventure travel. Methods The , and s were searched combining the words infection with the following keywords: , , , surfer* or *), (caves or or ), ( or trekking) or ( or ), , , (* or ), , , trekking, and . Results Adventure travel is becoming much more common among travelers and it is associated with a subset of infectious diseases including: , , s, s and endemic mycosis. Caving and whitewater rafting places individuals at particular risk of leptospirosis, schistosomiasis and endemic mycosis, while adventure races also place individuals at high risk of a variety of infections including , and leptospirosis."

"Adventure means different things to different people. For the past 5 or 10 years the tern 'adventure', and images of adventure activities, have been used worldwide to advertise holidays, equipment, clothing, lifestyles, property and more. Adventure may also mean different things to different tourists. What fills one person with fear fills another with boredom, and vice versa. Adventure tourism products, however, form a relatively well-defined and recognizable sector of the tourism industry. Adventure tours are retail-level commercial tour products which clients purchase specifically to take part in an outdoor activity which is more exciting than contemplative, and where the outdoor environment is enjoyed more as a setting for the activity than for its scenery, plants or animals. These definitions are not clear-cut, and in practice many tour products focus on nature and/or culture at the same time as adventure. This has been recognized through terms such as ACE, adventure-culture-ecotourism (Fennell, 1999, 2001) and NEAT, nature-eco-adventure-tourism (Buckley, 2000)."

"The spectrum of adventure activities ranging from non-hazardous to high risk has led to the concept where adventure tourism can be categorised as either 'Soft adventure' or 'Hard adventure'. Soft adventure would involve very low risk and may be undertaken by anybody and able, yet they would not necessarily need to have any previous experience in their chosen holiday. Accommodations would be provided and there would be little or no need for participation in anything other than the chosen holiday. Motivation for this would be more to the experience rather than an encounter with any risk. On the other hand, hard adventure would require previous experience, recognised levels of competence, ability to cope with the unexpected and skills associated with type of holiday. While this might imply some sense of risk seeking, Ewert and Hollenhorst (1994: 188) are at pains to suggest that 'although adventure recreators seek out increasingly difficult and challenging opportunities, they paradoxically do not nessarily seek higher levels of risk'."

"Academic interest in adventure tourism has increased in recent years given the exponential growth of this sector. Physical outdoor activity-based conceptualisations of adventure tourism - from soft adventure (, , etc.) to hard adventure (, wilderness trekking, etc.) — are commonly employed, but are criticised as overly simplistic and failing to capture the essence of adventure tourism. A systematic review of the adventure tourism literature aimed to address these concerns and resulted in a new conceptualisation of adventure tourism and its dimensions that offers a more comprehensive and sophisticated understanding of this tourism activity. Of the 22 dimensions of adventure tourism identified, risk and danger, the , thrill and excitement, challenge, and physical activity are at its core. Consumer-based, product-based and hybrid pillars of adventure tourism are also evident."

"High-volume mass tourism imparts the obvious consequences that the critics fear. ... A less-known alternative type of tourism focuses on adventurous travel to the world's remote places. This is not large-scale tourism of the kind envisioned by the critics of conventional tourism; ."

"Recent work has brought to light so many cases, historical and contemporary, of who have been ignored, denied credit or otherwise dropped from sight that a sex-linked phenomenon seems to exist, as has been documented to be the case in other fields, such as medicine, art history and . Since this systematic bias in scientific information and recognition practices fits the second half of Matthew 13:12 in the Bible, which refers to the under-recognition accorded to those who have little to start with, it is suggested that can add to the , made famous by Robert K. Merton in 1968, the 'Matilda Effect', named for the American suffragist and feminist critic of , who in the late nineteenth century both experienced and articulated this phenomenon. Calling attention to her and this age-old tendency may prod future scholars to include other such 'Matildas' and thus to write a better, because more comprehensive, and ."

"The undervaluing of minorities and their researcher contributions reduces when a threshold level of minority representation (between 15 and 30%) is reached in a group or community. Botany is celebrated as a discipline in which women have been able to make important contributions, especially in the past. At the same time, other s have raised worries that women's research contributions are being neglected or dismissed not just in the past but even currently. Based on data on the representation of women authors in 15 , I will suggest that the difference between botany and other disciplines may arise from the numbers and proportions of women. The contributions made by women in botany could not be as easily dismissed or neglected as elsewhere in biology due to women's higher representation in botany."

"Science is stratified, with an unequal distribution of research facilities and rewards among scientists. Awards and prizes, which are critical for shaping scientific career trajectories, play a role in this stratification when they differentially enhance the status of scientists who already have large reputations: the ‘’. Contrary to the – the expectation that the personal attributes of scientists do not affect evaluations of their scientific claims and contributions – in practice, a great deal of evidence suggests that the scientific efforts and achievements of women do not receive the same recognition as do those of men: the ‘Matilda Effect’. Awards in are not immune to these biases. ... While women’s receipt of professional awards and prizes has increased in the past two decades, men continue to win a higher proportion of awards for scholarly research than expected based on their representation in the nomination pool."

"The habitus comprises a set of generative schemes that produce practices and representations that are regular without reference to overt rules and that are goal directed without requiring conscious selection of goals or mastery of methods of achieving them..."

"When you are adopted, the desire to search for your parents can suddenly seem unquenchable and the curiosity has to be sated. That's when it becomes dangerous. It is an oddity that many adopted people embark on the search just when they have settled, finally, on an adult identity. I suppose they feel that now they can. Then the findings of the search throw everything into chaos."

"In , only children ... may be adopted ... Adoption is usually associated with the desire to nurture and protect the child as if one's own, and s or illegitimate children are the most frequent candidates for adoption. ... This has little in common with adoption among the . ... Those given in adoption are mostly adults ... Very few adoptions are directly attested. Roman legal writings are one of our best sources of evidence for the actual practice of adoption among the Romans; inscriptions are insufficiently specific for certainty in detecting adoptions, and the adoptions mentioned in literary sources are numbered in tens rather than hundreds. There is even less direct evidence about the reasons for adoption. Of the adoptions that are mentioned in literary sources, those in successive imperial families are not entirely typical of Roman society at large, since they generally have a specifically dynastic and political purpose. As in private families, however, a definite preference is shown for adopting persons related by blood, or at least by marriage, where any are available. This is the case between and , among the and the , and is most evident among the ."

"... if offspring of poor parents, adopted when newly born into well-to-do and well-educated families, turn out markedly different from the birthright members of those families then the presumption is that the dullness, of whichever is the duller, is a saturated growth. If on the other hand they all turn out much alike there is no proof that growth is saturated for any of them. There remains the presumption that the conditions have been much alike for all the members of one family and we get a more uncertain but still useful comparison of native worth, as pointed out above. A thorough study of a hundred such cases of adopted children would do more to reveal the nature of the poorer than statistics of 100,000 poor persons brought up in poverty."

"It was also the only country in the world to allow fully privatised adoptions from 1977 to 2008. At the height of the adoption boom, one in 100 children born in Guatemala was placed for adoption with a family abroad. “Some countries export bananas,” one lawyer who arranged private adoptions told the in 2016. “We exported babies.” Guatemala is often cited as the worst-case scenario for what can go wrong when adoptions are commercialised and children are sent from poorer countries to wealthier ones."

"The use of human adoptees to separate nature from nurture was first suggested by (1912–1913). During the early decades of the century, interest in adoptees first centered around the question of nature and nurture in human intelligence, which was stimulated in part by the development at that time of tests to measure intelligence. The adoption strategy involved a study of adoptees, their biologic parents, and their adoptive parents. As adoptions developed in the early years of this century, children generally separated at birth from biologic parents and birth environment were placed with nonrelatives who legally adopted and raised the children. In nature-nurture studies the focus of the investigation was usually a trait, behavior, or other characteristic—as in the early studies during the teens and twenties of this century when the focus was on intelligence. The crux of the technique involves comparisons between adoptees and both sets of parents, biologic and adoptive."

"While and followed their father's footsteps to , (regarded, in the absence of the disabled George, as second in age) left for a new life, as the adopted heir to a wealthy, childless couple who could offer hims great prospects. Edward's benefactor was of in , son of the kinsman who had presented the Steventon living to the Revd . The unofficial adoption of children for social advantage — so strange to twenty-first-century sensibilities — was by no means uncommon in Jane Austen's time: in her own fiction it would be central to the plot in two of her six novels, with being sent to live with the haughty Bertrams, in ', and becoming the adoptive heir of his rich aunt in '. In 's case, the arrangement worked well."

"That the tripartite ideology conforms to the nature of things is probable, and the undoubted temporal success of the Indo-Europeans is perhaps due to the fact that they, more than any other society, including many societies that were just as gifted, were aware of this natural division in the functions of community life. It cannot be fortuitous that some of the greatest successes and demonstrations of power, right up to the modern history of Europe, are based on clear and simple revivals of this ancient archetype, as has been elegantly stated by Mr. Mircea Eliade: the three orders that existed under the French monarchy (clergy, nobility and third estate), the three essential linchpins of the Soviet State (the Party with its police, the Red Army and the workers and farmers) and the three cornerstones of the Nazi State (the Partei with its police, the Wehrmacht and the Arbeitsfront) constituted, or still constitute, machines of incontestable efficiency."

"Ressentiment must therefore be strongest in a society like ours, where approximately equal rights (political and otherwise) or formal social equality, publicly recognized, go hand in hand with wide factual differences in power, property, and education."

"It is a curious fact that the more democratic a country becomes, the less respect it has for its rulers. Aristocracies and foreign conquerors may be hated but they are not despised."

"Here is the theory invented by Tocqueville. ... The lighter a yoke, the more it seems insupportable; what exasperates is not the crushing burden but the impediment; what inspires to revolt is not oppression but humiliation. The French of 1789 were incensed against the nobles because they were almost the equals of the nobles; it is the slight difference that can be appreciated, and what can be appreciated that counts. The eighteenth-century middle class was rich, in a position to fill almost any employment, almost as powerful as the nobility. It was exasperated by this “almost” and stimulated by the proximity of its goal; impatience is always provoked by the final strides."

"Overwhelming and astounding inequality, especially when it has an element of the unattainable, arouses far less envy than minimal inequality, which inevitably causes the envious to think: I might have been in his place."

"The best means of protection against the envy of a neighbor is to drive a Rolls-Royce instead of a car only slightly better than his...overwhelming and astounding inequality arouses far less envy than minimal inequality."

"The hatred that men bear to privilege increases in proportion as privileges become fewer and less considerable, so that democratic passions would seem to burn most fiercely just when they have least fuel. I have already given the reason for this phenomenon. When all conditions are unequal, no inequality is so great as to offend the eye, whereas the slightest dissimilarity is odious in the midst of general uniformity; the more complete this uniformity is, the more insupportable the sight of such a difference becomes. Hence it is natural that the love of equality should constantly increase together with equality itself, and that it should grow by what it feeds on."

"... As early as 1982, 's superbly researched first volume on women scientists in America startled its readers with its meticulously drawn picture of the double bind women scientists fell into from the late nineteenth into the early twentieth century. Caught between 'two almost mutually exclusive stereotypes' they were 'atypical' as both women and scientists. Thus, even as higher education opened up to them, they found it easier to be educated in science than to be successfully employed in it: an impasse which proved to be long-lasting."

"I think most importantly, men tend to get the top jobs, with which they get a bully pulpit for publication and speaking or exerting authority. I think women can be much more appreciated in science than they are."

"The administration and faculty at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) performed the first and most famous in-depth study on the status of women faculty within a particular institution. A group of senior women on the faculty had gathered preliminary evidence that they had less laboratory space, less access to research funding, and lower salaries than their male counterparts. In addition, they were infrequently represented on committees that made decisions about hiring and research funding. MIT's administration responded by researching the charges, finding that they were accurate, and taking steps to correct the inequities. The abstract to their report is an excellent description of the issues that still confront women scientists and analysis of why they went unrecognized by administration as well as by the women themselves."

"... although close to nothing was known, until recently, of the history of women in American science, women have been an integral part of the scientific community for well over a century. I can still recall my astonishment when I discovered in 1972 some women's entries in the old directories, and when I read biographies of several scientists in the then-new '. Here were people who had been present at many of the familiar places and events, but who were totally unknown even to those of us well versed in the history of American science. I felt like a modern Alice who had fallen down a rabbit hole into a wonderland of the history of science that was familiar in some respects but distorted and alien in many others. Learning more about these women and bringing their stories into closer connection with the rest of the history of this period became a compelling and absorbing intellectual task."

"In its most basic sense, organizational memory refers to stored information from an organization's history that can be brought to bear on present decisions. This information is stored as a consequence of implementing decisions to which they refer, by individual recollections, and through shared interpretations."

"A memory is a persistent record not dependent on a tight coupling between sender and receiver."

"Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it."

"Change that works by recapturing something that was there in the past has many resources on which to draw and a whole network of support on which to rely."

"Organizations are mental entities capable of thought."

"The extant representations of the concept of organizational memory are fragmented and underdeveloped. In developing a more coherent theory, we address possible concerns about anthropomorphism; define organizational memory and elaborate on its structure; and discuss the processes of information acquisition, retention, and retrieval. Next, these processes undergrid a discussion of how organizational memory can be used, misused, or abused in the management of organizations."

"Rules, procedures, technologies, beliefs and cultures are conserved through systems of socialization and control."

"Organizations do not literally remember."

"The fierce willingness to repudiate domination in a holistic manner is the starting point for progressive cultural revolution."

"The ultimate expression of sovereignty resides, to a large degree, in the power and the capacity to dictate who may live and who must die."

"Man becomes conscious of himself and his humanity only in society and only by the collective action of the whole society."

"When the public narrative significantly diverges from lived experience, the only outcome is more frustration among the people, who realise that on top of being poorly served, they’re also being lied to and manipulated."

"An institution is defined as collective action in control, liberation and expansion of individual action."

"Human beings have always had common purpose and destiny for which there have always been collective efforts."

"The gentrification mentality is rooted in the belief that obedience to consumer identity over recognition of lived experience is actually normal, neutral, and value free."

"What is missing from the 's tool kit - and from the set of accepted, well-developed theories of human organization - is an adequately specified theory of collective action whereby a group of principals can organize themselves voluntarily to retain the residuals of their own efforts."

"All the actions of the dominant class manifest its need to divide in order to facilitate the preservation of the oppressor state. Its interference in the unions, favoring certain "representatives" of the dominated classes (who actually represent the oppressor, not their own comrades); its promotion of individuals who reveal leadership capacity and could signify a threat if they were not "softened up" in this way; its distribution of benefits to some and penalties to others: all these are ways of dividing in order to preserve the system which favors the elite."

"The history of education shows that every class which has sought to take power has prepared itself for power by an autonomous education. The first step in emancipating oneself from political and social slavery is that of freeing the mind. I put forward this new idea: popular schooling should be placed under the control of the great workers’ unions. The problem of education is the most important class problem."

"Deviance is the invention of a group that uses its own standards as the ideal by which others are to be judged."

"A small percentage of the blacks owned slaves; they were our first black bourgeoisie. But what we have today are their spiritual descendents. And just as the earlier black slaveholders fail to alleviate the suffering of their slaves, so today the black capitalists (those few in existence) do nothing to alleviate the suffering of their oppressed black brothers."

"Black capitalism is a hoax. Black capitalism is represented as a great step toward black liberation. It isn’t. It is a giant stride away from liberation. No black capitalists can function unless they play the white man’s game. Worse still, while the black capitalist wants to think he functions on his own terms, he doesn’t. He is always subject to the whims of the white capitalist. The rules of black capitalism, and the limits of black capitalism are set by the white power structure."