Jainism

"He who harms animals has not understood or renounced deeds of sin...Those who are at peace and who are free from passions do not desire to live at the expense of others."

"Propagate the religion which is a blessing to all creatures in the world."

"Some slay (animals) for sacrificial purposes, some kill (animals) for the sake of their skin, some kill (them) for the sake of their flesh, some kill them for the sake of their blood; thus for the sake of their heart, their bile, the feathers of their tail, their tail, their big or small horns, their teeth, their tusks, their nails, their sinews, their bones; with a purpose or without a purpose. Some kill animals because they have been wounded by them, or are wounded, or will be wounded. He who injures these (animals) does not comprehend and renounce the sinful acts; he who does not injure these, comprehends and renounces the sinful acts. Knowing them, a wise man should not act sinfully towards animals, nor cause others to act so, nor allow others to act so. He who knows these causes of sin relating to animals, is called a reward-knowing sage."

"(He thinks) I have to provide for a mother, for a father, for a sister, for a wife, for sons, for daughters, for a daughter-in-law, for my friends, for near and remote relations, for my acquaintances, for different kinds of property, profit, meals, and clothes. Longing for these objects, people are careless, suffer day and night, work in the right and the wrong time, desire wealth and treasures, commit injuries and violent acts, direct the mind, again and again, upon these injurious doings."

"All beings are fond of life, like pleasure, hate pain, shun destruction, like life, long to live. To all life is dear."

"Having acquired it (i.e. wealth), employing bipeds and quadrupeds, gathering riches in the three ways, whatever his portion will be, small or great, he will desire to enjoy it. Then at one time, his manifold savings are a large treasure. Then at another time, his heirs divide it, or those who are without a living steal it, or the king takes it away, or it is ruined in some way or other, or it is consumed by the conflagration of the house. Thus a fool doing cruel deeds which benefit another, will ignorantly come thereby to grief."

"The Arhats and Bhagavats of the past, present, and future, all say thus, speak thus, declare thus, explain thus: All breathing, existing, living, sentient creatures should not be slain, nor treated with violence, nor abused, nor tormented, nor driven away. This is the pure, unchangeable, eternal law, which the clever ones, who understand the world, have declared: among the zealous and the not zealous, among the faithful and the not faithful, among the not cruel and the cruel, among those who have worldly weakness and those who have not, among those who like social bonds and those who do not: "that is the truth, that is so, that is proclaimed in this (creed)"."

"According to Jaina tradition nine of the eleven disciples attained the highest knowledge of kevala during Mahavira's lifetime."

"The essential metaphysical ideas of Jainism are nine cardinal principles. The universe is divided into that which is alive and conscious (jiva) and matter which is not (ajiva). Jivas (souls) are either caught by karma (action) in the world of reincarnation (samsara) or liberated (mukta) and perfected (siddha). Though their number is infinite, jivas are individuals and each potentially infinite in awareness, power, and bliss. Matter (ajiva) is made up of eternal atoms in time and space which can be moved and stopped."

"There is nothing mightier in the world than karma; karma tramples down all powers, as an elephant a clump of lotuses."

"Discipline is the root of religious practice."

"...the true nature of this great religion can be understood only if we emphasize not so much the broad divisions into Digambar and Shvetambar denominations but direct our probe into the importance and rationale of small sub-divisions. There are two major factors behind the unity of Jainism despite these divisions; one, attempts by all to unravel the original philosophy and practice of the devotees of Jin, and, two, the overarching philosophy credo of the many – pointed nature of truth (anekanta and syadavad) in Jainism."

"The basic principle of Jainism is ahimsa (non-violence), which is also the principle of Vaishanavism that was followed by his [Gandhi] family."

"Gandhi’s adherence to the philosophy of non-violence, non-possession, community welfare throughout his life can directly be attributed to the basic teachings of Jainism."

"A rise of Jain fundamentalism would endanger no one. In fact, the uncontrollable spread of Jainism throughout the world would improve our situation immensely. We would lose more of our crops to pests, perhaps (observant Jains generally will not kill anything, including insects), but we would not find ourselves surrounded by suicidal terrorists or by a civilization that widely condones their actions."

"If you think that it would be impossible to improve upon the Ten Commandments as a statement of morality, you really owe it to yourself to read some other scriptures. Once again, we need look no further than the Jains: Mahavira, the Jain patriarch, surpassed the morality of the Bible with a single sentence: "Do not injure, abuse, oppress, enslave, insult, torment, torture, or kill any creature or living being." Imagine how different our world might be if the Bible contained this as its central precept. Christians have abused, oppressed, enslaved, insulted, tormented, tortured, and killed people in the name of God for centuries, on the basis of a theologically defensible reading of the Bible. It is impossible to behave this way by adhering to the principles of Jainism."

"Take the religion of Jainism as one example. The Jains preach a doctrine of utter non-violence. While the Jains believe many improbable things about the universe, they do not believe the sorts of things that lit the fires of the Inquisition. ... Of course, many Christians believe that a harmless person like Martin Luther King, Jr., is the best exemplar of their religion. But this presents a serious problem, because the doctrine of Jainism is an objectively better guide for becoming like Martin Luther King, Jr., than the doctrine of Christianity is. While King undoubtedly considered himself a devout Christian, he acquired his commitment to nonviolence primarily from the writings of Mohandas K. Gandhi. In 1959, he even traveled to India to learn the principles of nonviolent social protest directly from Gandhi's disciples. Where did Gandhi, a Hindu, get his doctrine of nonviolence? He got it from the Jains."

"Jainism actually is a religion of peace. The core principle of Jainism is non-violence. Gandhi got his non-violence from the Jains. The crazier you get as a Jain, the less we have to worry about you. Jain extremists are paralysed by their pacifism. Jain extremists can't take their eyes off the ground when they walk lest they step on an ant... Needless to say they are vegetarian."

"The principal tenet of Jainism is non-harming. Observant Jains will literally not harm a fly. Fundamentalist Jainism and fundamentalist Islam do not have the same consequences, neither logically nor behaviorally."

"When I was a schoolboy in England, the old bound volumes of Kipling in the library had gilt swastikas embossed on their covers. The symbol's 'hooks' were left-handed, as opposed to the right-handed ones of the Nazi hakenkreuz, but for a boy growing up after 1945 the shock of encountering the emblem at all was a memorable one. I later learned that in the mid-1930s Kipling had caused this 'signature' to be removed from all his future editions. Having initially sympathized with some of the early European fascist movements, he wanted to express his repudiation of Hitlerism (or 'the Hun,' as he would perhaps have preferred to say), and wanted no part in tainting the ancient Indian rune by association. In its origin it is a Hindu and Jainas symbol for light, and well worth rescuing."

"I have a special respect for Jainism, one of the ancient religions of India. Last month I visited in Delhi the Shri Parshwanath Digambar Jain Temple, which has beautiful pictures depicting the Jain teaching of . This can be translated as “non-absolutism,” or the idea that Jains should love all human beings and respect all beliefs (while cherishing their own), since humans are limited, none of them can grasp the whole truth, and a peaceful world is one where we all honor the different perspectives on truth others may have. Those who advocate world citizenship understand that these noble ideals are not often realized in practice. They believe, however, that individuals, groups, and countries that fall must find ways to get back up again."

"He (Jahangir) persecuted the Jains in Gujarat, and ordered that Jain monks should not be seen in his kingdom on pain of death."

"The interest of Jainism to the students of religion consists in the fact that it goes back to a very early period and to Primitive currents of religious and metaphysical speculations, which gave rise to the oldest philosophies Sankhya, Yoga and to Buddhism."

"Jainism is not an offshoot of Vedic Brahmanism. It belonged to the masses who were basically agriculturist and valued bulls and cows."

"Jainism is basically a religious faith of the Thirthankaras. Jainism has come from the word Jin, which means the conquest of one’s own self in bondage,"

"Jainism had a major influence in developing a system of doctrine and ethics that has a major impact on all aspects of Indian culture in all ages; from Upanishads to Mahatma Gandhi."

"Jainism has a distinct concept of underlying Thirthankara worship. The physical form is not worshipped, but their Gunas; virtues, qualities are praised. Thirthankaras remain role-models, and sects such as the Sthanakavasi stringently reject statue worship."

"Flesh can not be procured without causing destruction of life; one who uses flesh, therefore, commits himsa (injury) unavoidable."

"Truth is beyond space and time. One who does not yearn for truth, will be trapped within space and time and become dogged. That man alone can remain free from mulish tendencies, who has the capacity to think across time: in the past, present and the future."

"To search for truth should be the main goal in one's life. This is a very difficult task. Let us begin by asking what is truth? What is untruth? To make this decision itself is difficult. Once the decision has been made, it is even more difficult to understand the limitations possible even in truth: elements of doubt and illusion. The Ultimate Truth is still far away, even if we are anywhere near relative truth, it should be deemed a great achievement."

"The balance between karma and akarma gives holistic vision. Lots of discussions regarding Karmayoga. No work can be completed without karma. That is the truth. Everybody accepts this truth. Our world is one of incompleteness. Where there is incompleteness, there is relativity. Both karma and akarma are relative. No work is completed without akarma."

"I am all-knowing and all-seeing, and possessed of an infinite knowledge. Whether I am walking or standing still, whether I sleep or remain awake, the supreme knowledge and intuition, are present with me---constantly and continuously. There are, O Nirgranthas, some sinful acts, you have done in the past, which you must now wear out, by this acute form of austerity. Now that here you will be living restrained, in regard to your acts, speech and thought, it will work as the nondoing of karma for future. Thus, by the exhaustion of the force of past deeds, through penance and the non-accumulation of new acts,(you are assured) of the stoppage of the future course, of rebirth from such stoppage, of the destruction of the effect of karma, from that, of the destruction of pain, from that, of the destruction of mental feelings, and from that, of the complete wearing out of all kinds of pain."

"All breathing, existing, living, sentient creatures should not be slain, nor treated with violence, nor abused, nor tormented, nor driven away."

"Desistance from sin makes one entirely happy."

"Non-violence and kindness to living beings is kindness to oneself. For thereby one's own self is saved from various kinds of sins and resultant sufferings and is able to secure his own welfare."

"Jainism: In happiness and suffering, in joy and grief, we should regard all creatures as we regard our own self."

"If one does not wish to destroy one’s soul, then one should not destroy living creatures."

"Another version of Namokar Mahamantra"

"Obeisance to the Arihants, perfect souls –Godmen Obeisance to the Siddhas-liberated bodiless souls Obeisance to the masters-heads of congregations Obeisance to the teachers-ascetic teachers Obeisance to all the ascetic aspirants in the universe This fivefold obeisance mantra destroys all demerit And is the first and foremost of all Auspicious recitations."

"Namo Arihantanam - White Color: Arihant is a perfect human being. White color represents Arihant. The white color is the mother of all colors; it is a blending of all colors. It represents pure knowledge."

"Siddhanam - Red Color: Siddha is a pure consciousness or a soul without any Karma attached to it. Both Arihant and Siddha are known as Gods in Jainism. Red color represents Siddha."

"Namo Airiyanam - Yellow and Orange Color: Acharya is a head of the Jain congregation. It symbolizes the organizational power,Yellow or orange color represents Acharya. Both Yellow and Orange show wisdom, power to accomplish the goal, and discipline or strong will power in the life."

"Namo Uvajjhayanam - Green and Blue Color: Upadhyay is a teacher, which shows how to awaken powers and maintain balance of body, mind, and soul. Green or Blue color represents Upadhyay."

"Namo Loe Savva Sahunam - Black Color: Sadhu (monk) is a spiritual practitioner. The practitioner must be protected from worldly attachments and must destroy negativity. Black color represents monk. Black is the absence of all color. It is receptive, consumes negativity, and gives the strength to fight negativity."

"The Five Great Vows (Maha Vrata): At the time of initiation Sadhus and Sadhvis take five major vows and live strictly in accordance with their vows. These vows are: Ahimsa Maha Vrata (Vow of absolute non-violence), Satya Maha Vrata (Vow of absolute Truthfulness), Asteya or Achaurya Maha Vrata (Vow of absolute Non-stealing), Brhmacharya Mahavrata (Vow of absolute Celibacy) and Aparigraha Maha Vrata (Vow of absolute Non-attachment)"

"In historical times Vardhamana Mahavira who according to tradition was born in 599BCE, explained this religion but he was not the first to reveal its principles which are said to have always existed. Though a distinct religion, it has some similarities with Hinduism."

"Jainism has a complex classification of Jnana or knowledge, and the means of understanding reality."

"Like Hinduism, Jain cosmology believes in a series of Kalpas or cycles of existence which are divided into twelve eras, a term similar to manvantaras of Hinduism. According to Jain tradition, Jainism is revealed anew in every kalpa through twenty-four Thirthankaras..."

"Some foolish men declare that the creator made the world. The doctrine that the world was created is ill advised and should be rejected. If god created the world, where was he before the creation? If you say he was transcendent then and needed no support, where is he now? How could god have made this world without any raw material? If you say that he made this first, and then the world, you are faced with an endless regression."

"Māhavīra proclaimed a profound truth for all times to come when he said: "One who neglects or disregards the existence of earth, air, fire, water and vegetation disregards his own existence which is entwined with them." Jain cosmology recognizes the fundamental natural phenomenon of symbiosis or mutual dependence, which forms the basis of the modern day science of ecology. It is relevant to recall that the term "ecology" was coined in the latter half of the nineteenth century from the Greek word oikos, meaning "home", a place to which one returns. Ecology is the branch of biology which deals with the relations of organisms to their surroundings and to other organisms. The ancient Jain scriptural aphorism Parasparopagraho Jīvānām (All life is bound together by mutual support and interdependence) is refreshingly contemporary in its premise and perspective. It defines the scope of modern ecology while extending it further to a more spacious "home". It means that all aspects of nature belong together and are bound in a physical as well as a metaphysical relationship. Life is viewed as a gift of togetherness, accommodation and assistance in a universe teeming with interdependent constituents."

"All breathing, existing, living, snteint creatures should not be slain nr treated with violence, nor abused, nor tormented, nor driven away. This the pure unchangeable law."

"All beings hate pains; therefore one should not kill them. This is the quintessence of wisdom; not to kill anything."

"May the sacred stream of amity flow forever in my heart. May the universe prosper - such is my cherished desire. May my heart sing with ecstasy at the sight of the virtuous. And may my life be an offering at their feet. May my heart bleed at the sight of the wretched, the irreligious, and my tears of compassion flow from my eyes. May I always be there to show the path to the pathless wanderers of life. Yet if they should not hearken to me, may I bide in patience. May the spirit of goodwill enter into all our hearts, May we all sing in chorus the immortal song of human concord"

"Right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct (together) constitute the path to liberation."

"Saṃsāra bhavanā: "Endless is the cycle of transmigration; painful is every form of life; there is no happiness in any of the four conditions of existence; devas, human beings, animals and residents of hells are all involved in pain and misery of some kind or other; moksha alone is blissful and free from pain; the wise should, therefore, only aspire for moksha ; all other conditions are temporary and painful." (Page. 52)"

"Substance is the sub-strate of qualities which cannot exist apart from it, for instance, the quality of fluidity, moisture, and the like only exist in water and cannot be conceived separately from it. It is neither possible to create nor to destroy a substance, which means that there never was a time when the existing substances were not, nor shall they ever cease to be.(Page. 15-16)"

"Having mastered the teachings and got rid of carelessness, one should live on allowed food, and treat all beings as one oneself would be treated; one should not expose oneself to guilt by one's desire for life; a monk who performs austerities should not keep any store"

"Subdue yourself, for the self is difficult to subdue; if your self is subdued, you will be happy in this world and the next. Better it is that I should subdue myself by self-control and penance, than be subdued by others with fetters and corporal punishment"

"The binding of animals, all the Vedas, and sacrifices, being causes of sin, cannot save the sinner; for one's works are very powerful. One does not become a Shramana by the tonsure, nor a Brahmin by the sacred syllable aum, nor a Muni by living in the woods, nor a Tapasa by wearing kusha-grass and bark. One becomes a Shramana by equanimity, a Brahmin by chastity, a Muni by knowledge, and a Tapasa by penance. By one's actions one becomes a Brahmin or a Kshatriya or a Vaisya or a Sudra."

"The foundation of Jainism has been attributed by Occidental historians to Mahavira. - Heinrich Zimmer"

"There is truth in the Jaina idea that their religion goes back to a remote antiquity, the antiquity in question being that of the pre-Aryan so called Dravidian period, which has recently been dramatically illuminated by the discovery of a series of great Late stone Age cities in the Indus Valley, dating from the third and perhaps even fourth millennium B.C. - Heinrich Zimmer"

"परस्परोपग्रहो जीवानाम्"

"Understanding and faith and conduct and asceticism: this is the path taught by the Jinas who have perfect knowledge. Understanding and faith and conduct and asceticism: those souls who follow this path go to liberation."

"The Buddhists or the Jains do not depend upon God; but the whole force of their religion is directed to the great central truth in every religion, to evolve a God out of man. They have not seen the Father, but they have seen the Son. And he that hath seen the Son hath seen the Father also."

"Swami Vivekananda appreciated the role of Jainism in the development of Indian religious philosophy. In his words, he asks: "What could have saved Indian society from the ponderous burden of omnifarious ritualistic ceremonialism, with its animal and other sacrifices, which all but crushed the very life of it, except the Jain revolution which took its strong stand exclusively on chaste morals and philosophical truths?"

"In happiness and suffering, in joy and grief, we should regard all creatures as we regard our own self, and should therefore refrain from inflicting upon others such injury as would appear undesirable to us if inflicted upon ourselves. This is the quintessence of wisdom; not to kill anything. All breathing, existing, living sentient creatures should not be slain, nor treated with violence, nor abused, nor tormented, nor driven away. This is the pure unchangeable Law. Therefore, cease to injure living things. All living things love their life, desire pleasure and do not like pain; they dislike any injury to themselves; everybody is desirous of life and to every being, his life is very dear."

"Brahma's consort is Saraswati, goddess of knowledge."

"Sarasvati, Hindu goddess of learning and the arts, especially music. First appearing as the personification of the sacred river Sarasvati and also identified with Vac, the goddess of speech, she is later named the consort, daughter, or granddaughter of the god Brahma. She is regarded as the patroness of art, music, and letters and as the inventor of the Sanskrit language. She is usually represented as riding on a goose of pure white that is able to undertake long flights and holding a lute and a manuscript or book. In modern times her mount has frequently been represented as a swan."

"Sarasvati is worshipped at the advent of spring (January–February), when her image is taken out in jubilant procession, but she is also invoked perennially and at examination times by students and by artists and performers of all kinds. Sarasvati is also popular in Jain and Buddhist mythology."

"For obstacles in education and defect in speech Saraswati Mantra as detailed in the Vedas, and believers in tantra should perform Neel Saraswati Mantra and stotra- these devices will usher in general well being."

"Ganesha is frequently depicted with Saraswati, the Goddess of learning and music, and Lakshmi, the Goddess of wealth and prosperity. Since Ganesha is associated with similar attributes as the goddesses, many devotees believe that they are his wives in previous incarnations. This assumption is reinforced by their worship along with Ganesha, especially during Diwali. But no myths support this notion. The deities are worshiped together simply because they represent similar goals."

"Saraswati is also said to have had her origin from the god Vishnu... Her association with Vishnu makes her the co-wife of Laksmi in many myths. In this relationship Saraswati for the most part represents spiritual, ascetic, or religious goals and values, whereas Laksmi represents worldly well-being as manifest in wealth, material power, and fertility."

"...Purusha was personified as Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva while Prakriti was personified as Saraswati, Lakshmi and Shakti."

"There isn't a Hindu student who has not been encouraged to offer prayer to Goddess Saraswati especially during the school/college term. Goddess Saraswati is the consort of Brahma, the creator, and is worshipped as the Goddess of learning, wisdom, speech and music. Saraswati is worshipped regularly in the Fall during Navaratri, Hindus of Bengali tradition worship her during the Spring season."

"Roman Alphabet: Prayer: yaakundendu tushaarahaara dhavalaa yaashubhra vastraanvitaa yaaveenaa varadanda manditakaraa yaashveta padmaasanaa yaabrahmaacyuta shankara prabrtibhir devai:sadaa pujitaa saamaam paatu bhagavatee nishsesha jaadhyapahaa."

"English translation: May that Saraswati whose complexion is as fair as kunda flower, the moon, snow, and pearl necklace, who wears spotless garments, whose hand adorns the veena, who is seated on a white lotus, who is constantly worshiped by Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, who destroys laziness forever, May that goddess protect us."

"In the Hindu practice of praying upon first waking up in the morning, the shloka recited includes Saraswati as described below:"

"Roman Alphbet: Prayer: Karaagre Vasate Lakshmi, Kara Madhye Saraswati, Kara Muuley Stitha Gowri.. Prabhahate Kara Darshanam extracted from: Yoga Mantra Collection of Ancient India, silambam.asia"

"At the tip of hand resides Lakshmi and at the center Saraswati And at the base of palm resides Shakti Thus we should view our palms in the morning."

"Roman Alphbet: Prayer: karaagre vasate, Lakshmi Karamadhye Saraswati Karamuletu Govindaha Prabhaate Karadarshanam"

"At the tip of hand resides Lakshmi and at the center Saraswati And at the base resides Govinda (also known as Krishna) Thus we should view our palms in the morning."

"Roman Alphbet: Prayer:Saraswathi Namasthubhyam, Varadey Kaamarupinee! Vidhyarambham Karishyami, Sidhir Bhavathu Mey Sada"

"English translation: Salutations to Saraswati capable of granting my prayers I shall begin my learning and may you grant me success always"

"Saraswati, the goddess of knowledge is worthy of eulogisation."

"In worship of the gods, you must of course use images. But you can change these. Kali need not always be in one position. Encourage your girls to think of new ways of picturing Her. Have a hundred different conceptions of Saraswati. Let them draw and model and paint their own ideas"

"The grace of both Lakshmi (goddess of fortune) and Sarasvati (goddess of learning) now shines on the peoples of the Western countries"

"The name Sarasvati evokes images of the beautiful vind-Triven at Prayag-playing goddess of knowledge and recalls an ancient river that is now believed to flow underground, meeting the Ganga and the Yamuna at the sacred confluence of Triveni at Parayaga/Allahabad. The fair Sarasvati embodies beauty, music, flowing water and above all knowledge, the goddess has been worshipped on a pan-Indian scale among Hindus, Jains and Buddhists alike."

"...the development of Sarasvati from her riverine origins is depicted in the earliest textual source on the goddess, the Rig Veda composed sometime after 1750 BC, through to her establishment as the deity of all forms of knowledge in epic and early Puranic sources (upto the seventh century C.E), as well as in the oldest surviving Hindu, Jain and Buddhist images (third to seventh century), to the Goddesses’s depiction in the most significant Buddhist source on Sarasvati, the Sutra of Golden Light, whose earliest extant redaction is from the beginning of the fifth century."

"The earliest known texts in which Sarasvati appears are the Veda Samhitas, composed in an area covering modern day Afghanistan, the Punjab and surrounding, and stretching eastwards with the later Samhitas over northern India. Their compilation was initiated in the 12th century BC by Kuru kings of eastern Punjab/western Uttar Pradesh, when suddenly appear in post-Rigvedic texts."

"Sarasvati appears in many verses of the Rig Veda, and is invoked, in particular, in three hymns: while 6:61 is entirely dedicated to her, she shares 7:95-96 with her male counterpart Sarasvant, to whom are addressed a few of the stanzas."

"In the Rigveda, Sarasvati is a deified river representing abundance and might. She is associated with above all with the Waters (Apas) and the Storm Gods (Maruts), and forms a triad with the sacrificial goddesses Ila and Bharati."

"Sarasvati as a river...O Rich Waters, since you have command over the good Since you carry [within you] auspicious resolve and immortality, [and] since you are mistresses of wealth consisting of good descent, may Sarasvati grant the singer this vital force."

"The Waters are often called celestial (devi), and likened to loving mothers (usattr iva matarah II ). Much as Sarasvati, they bring food, wealth, strength, and health."

"Roman Alphabet: Prayer: sarasvaty abhi no nesi vdsyo mdpa spharih pdyasd ma na a dhak I"

"English translation: O Sarasvati, lead us to prosperity. may you not push aside. May you not fail us with [your] milk."

"From the Manuscript-carrying Vīṇā-player to the Weapon-wielding Defender of the Dharma ... Sarasvati and Speech Ihus, since dhi and vac walk hand in hand so to speak, Sarasvati, who is repeatedly associated with dhi in the Rigveda, is, in turn, by way of dhi, implicitly connected with Vac. As she grants inspired thought, she makes its manifestation in the form of poetry or prayer, and thus speech, possible. Dhi, therefore, over which she presides, is fundamental to the gradual rapprochement and eventual identification of Sarasvati with speech."

"The gatha that is the first and the choice one of women, the gods sang a gatha, in which this whole world [exists], which is the highest glory of women, that (gatha) I will sing today. Further this, O Sarasvati, fortunate one, rich in prizes. As such we will sing [praise] you at the beginning, before every being."

"In the Mahabharata, Sarasvati appears above all as a sacred river, along which pilgrimages are made. She is also represented as goddess of speech and knowledge. In relation to others, she is depicted as daughter, wife, and mother"

"Rites centering on Sarasvati as a goddess, rather than as a river, appear in the Markandeya and the Matsya Purana. The Markandeya Purana includes two instances: a largely undescribed sacrifice to Sarasvati is performed to cure dumbness brought on by a curse, and the goddess is worshipped to grant knowledge in music."

"In the Mahabharata, Sarasvati is depicted in human-like form and disposition, as a frightened and confused woman, and with newly found relations to other gods and mortals. Her manifestation in human shape has Brahmanical precedent in the form of vac, who materialized as an attractively attired, passionate woman already in the Rigveda, was bartered off for Soma in the Brahmanas."

"The lotus and a mudra (usually varada) are also common features in the goddess's later representations. Indeed, variations in the implements with which Sarasvati is depicted are even more numerous than in the many iconographic descriptions found in the Puranas. By the eleventh century, six and eight-armed forms of the goddess begin to appear, including South Indian images showing out multi-armed Sarasvati dancing."

"Sarasvati is also closely related to Vedic cult, both as a participant in or witness of the cult and as a guardian of the cult. She is invoked with and associated with the sacrificial goddesses Ida and Bharati and with the goddesses Mahi and Hotra, who are associated with prayer. She is said to destroy those who revile the gods and to be a slayer of Vratra, a demon of chaos."

"Sarasvati is described particularly as a purifying presence. Her waters cleanse poison from men. Along with rivers and floods in general, she cleanses her petitioners with holy oil and bears away defilements."

"Anticipating her later nature as a goddess of inspiration, eloquence and learning, the hymns of the Rigveda also describe Sarasvati as the inciter of pleasant songs, all gracious thought, and every pious thought. In this vein she is similar to the Vedic goddess Vac (speech) with whom she is consistently identified in the Brahmanas."

"She is often called Bhudevi (the goddess of the earth) and appears in myths primarily in the role of supplicant to the gods because of the burden of having to sustain a notoriously evil demon. Sarasvati also continues to be known in the later tradition and becomes popular primarily as a goddess of learning, wisdom, and culture."

"Sarasvati is one of the few important goddesses in the Vedas who remain significant in later Hinduism...In classical and medieval Hinduism Sarasvati is primarily a goddess of poetic inspiration and learning. She gets associated with the creator Brahma, as either his daughter or wife. In this role she is creative sound, which lends to reality a peculiar and distinctive human dimension. She becomes identified with the dimension of reality that is best described as coherent intelligibility. Sarasvati to this day is worshipped throughout India and her special day is worshipped by school children as the patron goddess of learning."

"Her sexual encounters are not emphasized, and when her father/ husband Brahma does desire her, she seeks to flee from him. Her motherhood is usually only metaphorical: she is said to give birth to artistic creations by providing inspiration or to have given birth to the Vedas in the sense that she personifies wisdom. In the Devi-Bhagavata Purana she is said to be an ascetic in nature and to grant boons to those who practice asceticism. Her presence is therefore usually not sought in the home. She is not a domestic goddess. Nor is her presence sought in the fields, where fertility is crucial, or in the forest and mountains, where isolation is sought from culture is desired in the quest for moksha. Her presence is sought in libraries and schools, by those who create and bear culture in the ongoing task of transforming the natural world into a refined and civilized habitation for human beings."

"She [Durga] also takes on the role of mother in her later history. At her most important festival, Durga Puja, she is shown flanked by four deities identified as her children: Karttikeya, Ganesha, Sarasvati, and Lakshmi."

"In many ways the Devi assumes the role and displays the characteristics of Sarasvati as the granter of wisdom and learning. She is associated with practical knowledge and civilization in general. The Devi in this aspect is not a goddess revealed in nature but a goddess associated with culture."

"As the creator Brahma created Saraswati. So she is the daughter. He then married her and, therefore, she is revered as his wife. She is the river Saraswati personified. She is the goddess of speech, learning and knowledge. Those who pursue learning hold her in high reverence and always seek her blessings. She uses swan as her vehicle."

"In the Devi Bhagwat, it is said that Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh hold Saraswati in great reverence. Whoever makes offerings and prays to Sarasvati is blessed with thorough knowledge just like her vehicle, the swan. Every year in the Hindu month of Magh when Vasant Panchami is celebrated, it is customary to offer Saraswati special rituals and prayers."

"...the religious texts indicate that the word 'Brahm' refers to "Brahmi" or Saraswati, the Goddess of Knowledge. For this reason, since ancient times young students were taught the Vedas early in the morning."

"According to the Puranas, it is said that a lotus emerged from the navel of Lord Vishnu. Brahma was seated on the lotus. Thereafter, he proceeded to create mankind. Brahma, Saraswati, Lakshmi and other gods and goddesses have used the lotus as a seat. When it was important to them, could it be any less to others?"

"Thereby, one invokes the blessings of the Hindu triad Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh and their wives Saraswati, Lakshmi and Durga. With Brahma's blessings one is compassionate, with Vishnu's blessings one gains strength to protect oneself and the blessings of Mahesh ward off bad influences. Blessings of goddesses are also obtained when Lakshmi showers prosperity, Durga imparts strength, Saraswati bestows wisdom."

"Reverence to the Arhats and Bhagavats; to the Adikaras, the Tirthakaras, the perfectly-enlightened ones; to the highest of men, the lions among men, the flowers among mankind, the Gandhahastins among men; to the highest in the world, the guides of the world, the benefactors of the world, the lights of the world, the enlighteners of the world; to the givers of safety, to the givers of sight, to the givers of the road, to the givers of shelter, to the givers of life, to the givers of knowledge; to the givers of the law, the preachers of the law, the lords of the law, the leaders of the law, the universal emperors of the best law; to the light, the help, the shelter, the refuge, the resting-place, the possessors of unchecked knowledge and intuition who have got rid of unrighteousness; to the conquerors and the granters of conquest, the saved and the saviours, the enlightened and the enlighteners, the liberated and the liberators, to the all-knowing ones, the all-seeing ones, to those who have reached the happy, stable, unstained, infinite, imperishable, undecaying place, called the path of perfection, whence there is no return; reverence to the Ginas who have conquered fear."

"“The ruined Jain temple situated in the western portion of MaheTh… derives the name ‘Sobhnãth’ from Sambhavanãtha, the third TîrthaMkara, who is believed to have been born at Šrãvastî… “Let us now turn our attention to the western-most part of Sobhnãth ruins. It is crowned by a domed edifice, apparently a Muslim tomb of the Pathãn period… “These remains are raised on a platform, 30’ square, built mostly of broken bricks including carved ones… This platform, no doubt, represents the plinth of the last Jain temple which was destroyed by the Muhammadan conquerors… It will be seen from the plan that the enclosure of the tomb overlaps this square platform. The tomb proper stands on a mass of debris which is probably the remains of the ruined shrine…"

"Coming to the ruins of a Buddhist monastery in the same complex, the archaeologist proceeds: “In the 23rd cell, which I identify with the store-room, I found half-buried in the floor a big earthen jar… This must have been used for storage of corn… “This cell is connected with a find which is certainly the most notable discovery of the season. I refer to an inscribed copper-plate of Govindachandra of Kanauj… The charter was issued from Vãrãnasî on Monday, the full moon day of ÃshãDha Sam. 1186, which… corresponds to the 23rd of June, 1130. The inscription records the grant of six villages to the ‘Community of Buddhist friars of whom Buddhabhattãraka is the chief and foremost, residing in the great convent of the holy Jetavana,’ and is of a paramount importance, in as much as it conclusively settles the identification of MaheTh with the city of Šrãvastî…”"

"He describes as follows some of the sculptures unearthed at SrAvastI: “S.1. Statuette in grey stone… of Buddha seated cross-legged in the teaching attitude on a conventional lotus. The head, breast and fore-arms as well as the sides of the sculpture are broken. “S.2. Lower portion… of a blue schist image of Avalokitešvara in the sportive attitude (lîlãsana) on a lotus seat. “S. 3. Image… of Avalokitešvara seated in ardhaparyanka attitude on a conventional lotus… The head and left arms of the main figure are missing.”"

"With the conversion of Ashoka to Buddhism, Indian architecture began to throw off this alien influence, and to take its inspiration and it symbols from the new religion. The transition is evident in the great capital which is all that now remains of another Ashokan pillar, at Sarnath; here, in a composition of astonishing perfection, ranked by Sir John Marshall as equal to “anything of its kind in the ancient world,” we have four powerful lions, standing back to back on guard, and thoroughly Persian in form and countenance; but beneath them is a frieze of well-carved figures including so Indian a favorite as the elephant, and so Indian a symbol as the Buddhist Wheel of the Law; and under the frieze is a great stone lotus, formerly mistaken for a Persian bell-capital, but now accepted as the most ancient, universal and characteristic of all the symbols in Indian art. Represented upright, with the petals turned down and the pistil or seed-vessel showing, it stood for the womb of the world; or, as one of the fairest of nature’s manifestations, it served as the throne of a god. The lotus or water-lily symbol migrated with Buddhism, and permeated the art of China and Japan. A like form, used as a design for windows and doors, became the “horseshoe arch” of Ashokan vaults and domes, originally derived from the “covered wagon” curvature of Bengali thatched roofs supported by rods of bent bamboo."

"There is in the land of Mnar a vast still lake that is fed by no stream and out of which no stream flows. Ten thousand years ago there stood by its shore the mighty city of Sarnath, but Sarnath stands there no more."

"Lofty and amazing were the seventeen tower-like temples of Sarnath, fashioned of a bright multi-coloured stone not known elsewhere."

"The tremendous complex at Sarnath which had grown up on the site of the first Buddhist sermon was wrecked beyond recovery, thus ending a continuous tradition of refuge and meeting-place for ascetics which went back to the centuries before Buddha."

"The inscriptions found there extending to the twelfth century A.D. show that the connection of Sarnath with Buddhism was still remembered at that date."

"The condition of the excavated ruins leaves little doubt that a violent catastrophe accompanied by willful destruction and plunder overtook the place."

"Sages such as Sri Aurobindo who have meditated on Hindu iconography, and savants such as Ananda Coomara-swamy, Stella Kramrisch, and Alice Boner who have studied the subject, assure us that the forms and features of Hindu icons have a source higher than the normal reaches of the human mind. The icons are no photocopies of any human or animal forms as we find them in their physical frames. They are in fact crystallizations of the abstract into the concrete, of the infinite into the finite. They always point beyond themselves, and a contemplation of them always draws us from the outer to the inner. Hindu Šilpašãstras lay down not only technical formulas for carving holy icons in stone, and metal, and other materials. They also lay down elaborate rules about how the artist is to fast, and pray, and otherwise purify himself for long periods before he is permitted, if at all, to have a psychic image of the God or Goddess whom he wants to incarnate in a physical form. It is this sublime source of the Šilpašãstras which alone can explain a Sarnath Buddha, or a Chidambram Natarãja, or a Vidisha Varãha, to name only a few of the large assembly of divine images inhabiting the earth. It is because this sublime source is not accessible to modern sculptors that we have to be content with poor copies which look like parodies of the original marvels."

"Hari (Vishnu), who had been commissioned by Hara (Siva), in order to protect Varanasi from the wicked Turushka warrior, as the only one who was able to protect the earth, was again born from him, his name being renowned as Govindachandra..."

"Vincent Smith wrote: “The ashes of the Buddhist sanctuary at Samath near Benares still bear witness to the rage of the image-breakers. Many noble monuments of the ancient civilization of India were irrevocably wrecked in the course of the early Muslim invasions. These invasions were fatal to the existence of Buddhism as an organised religion in northern India where its strength resided chiefly in Bihar and certain adjoining regions.”"

"Very early in the morning of my last day’s sojourn here, I rode with General Simpson to the village of Sarnath. It is six miles north-east of Benares, and three, of the cantonments, and evidently lies on a classic soil, for, that a large and mighty city must have stood here, is amply testified by the numerous ruins, and beautifully-formed bricks, with which all the ground, and especially the banks of a lake, which extends from east to west, are covered. The only fragment which has been preserved, is a vaulted tower about sixty feet high; it is built of granite and blocks of red sandstone, which are let into one another, and fastened without any cement, and in the upper portion some bricks have been introduced. The diameter of its base is about 100 feet, and the whole of the exterior, forms a round domed cone, similar to the Manikeeala in the Punjab. This remarkable tower is a compact mass of stone, without any open space in the interior, and merely covers a deep well, into which the corpse of a king was probably let down. A copper tablet found upon its highest summit bears an inscription, which, as far as I know, has not yet been deciphered: it is now in the museum of the Asiatic Society at Calcutta. At an elevation of about twenty feet from the ground are several niches, surrounded by elegant arabesques, in which statutes of men, women, and children, the size of life, formerly stood: some of these have been removed to Calcutta, to save them from the destructive spirit of the natives; seven statutes of red sandstone, which were sadly mutilated were, however, lying about. They are the figures of a people, with flat noses, thick lips, and unusually large eyes. The hair lies perfectly smooth to the head, and falls in innumerable curls over the neck and shoulders. Some of them were quite naked, others wrapped in light garments, which are very curiously wrought, and fit tight to the body, or fall in picturesque folds. One of these figures wore a cord round the waist, exactly similar to that which distinguishes the Brahmins."

"When I was a schoolboy in England, the old bound volumes of Kipling in the library had gilt swastikas embossed on their covers. The symbol's 'hooks' were left-handed, as opposed to the right-handed ones of the Nazi hakenkreuz, but for a boy growing up after 1945 the shock of encountering the emblem at all was a memorable one. I later learned that in the mid-1930s Kipling had caused this 'signature' to be removed from all his future editions. Having initially sympathized with some of the early European fascist movements, he wanted to express his repudiation of Hitlerism (or 'the Hun,' as he would perhaps have preferred to say), and wanted no part in tainting the ancient Indian rune by association. In its origin it is a Hindu and Jainas symbol for light, and well worth rescuing."

"This reversal of the swastika's meaning, from a sign of luck (always depicted on the hand of opulent Ganesh) to a sign of evil, is somewhat like the story of the Christian image of the devil : he is depicted with buck's horns, a clear reference to the horned god of Paganism (like the Pashupati on one of the Indus seals). The positive imagery of Paganism got integrated into Christian imagery, but then as the symbol of evil. Now that we are no longer bound by the compulsions of the missionary project, we may clear the horned god, as well as the swastika, of the evil aura with which outsiders have covered them... I think it is a matter of sensitivity to display those swastikas only in very modest ways, for as long as people who have lived through the horrors of the Nazi regime are with us... some time in the next century the Swastika may regain its rightful place as a profound and timeless symbol, untainted by the accidental and misconceived association with Nazism."

"Contrary to what Indian secularists would like to insunate before ignorant Western press correspondents, Hindus have never strayed from the traditional use and interpretation of the swastika, and never allowed it to be tainted by the misunderstandings of semi-literate political agitators in Europe."

"The svastika, commonly used as an aniconic representation of the Buddha, is also homologous with the wheel. If the svastika is compared with the figure of the cross inscribed within a circle, the basic equivalence of the two symbols is apparent, the rotation of the wheel being indicated in the first case by the circumference of the circle and in the svastika by the lines at right angles to the four arms of the cross, which are to be thought of in the manner of ribbons streaming in the wind. Like the wheel, the svastika represents movement about a fixed and unmoving axis and, like the wheel, it is a symbol of the generation of universal cycles from a forever-Present Centre. It represents the generation of currents of energy, and is a symbol of the action of immutable Principle, the "unmoved mover", within manifestation."

"James Tod (1782-1835), who visited Shatrunjay, wrote of the main temple of Adinatha, On the left hand on entering the area, is a spot peculiarly sacred to all of this faith, where Adna’th used to sit in adoration of the ‘One God,’ when the mountain-top, with no canopy but the sky, was his sole place of worship. A Raen tree still marks the site, and is firmly believed by the faithful to be a never-dying scion of that which shaded the first of their prophets, and which now overshadows his sanctified padwa. He could not have selected a spot more calculated to assist the mind’s devotion, and elevate it, ‘through Nature, up to Nature’s God.’ The prospect was sublime..."

"A.K. Forbes (1821-1865), who came to India in 1843 and spent most of his time in western India, described the site and its desecration, The holy mountain of Shutroonjye, sacred to Adeenath, the first of the twenty-four hierophants of the Jains... Shutroonjye is one of the most ancient and sacred shrines of the Jain religion. It is described as the first of places of pilgrimages... The temples on Shutroonjye were afterwards destroyed by barbarians and for a long time desolation reigned in the holy mountain."

"Henry Cousens observed miniature masonry idgahs in front of the tower of the Adinatha temple, as well as above the south corridor, and the adjoining temple. According to him, Jains claimed to have built the idgahs themselves to protect the temple from Muhammadans! They had learnt that it was contrary to Islam to destroy an idgah or mosque once built. If the Adinatha temple was destroyed, it would fall on the idgah. Cousens observed, From this it would seem that sad experience prompted the Jains to have recourse to this artifice to prevent a repetition of what had already happened."

"He (Henry Cousens) noticed that the nose of the Adinatha image had been broken, and was “replaced by a gold one.” The Muhammadans were known to cut off the noses of images. He saw many “undoubtedly old images in the cells of the corridors with particularly flat noses.” On examination he noted that the noses had been refashioned into the face, ..to get sufficient protuberance for the new ones; they might be termed countersunk noses. The lips too, which are, as a rule, prominent, are in these, flattened and mis-shapened. The old simhasanas (old marble image-seats), also, have been woefully mutilated; and, from the fact that none of them is in its original position, it would appear that whole shrines were pulled down (Cousens 1931: 76)."

"Worshipping the Lord of the Jinas, Parsvanitha, who resides in the temple of the city Harikankhi, I now give briefly an account of that very image, which has destroyed the pride of this Evil Age in its ability to do evil. There is a village called Harikaikhi in the land of Gujarat. In that village there is a magical image of the Lord Pargvanatha that is housed in a Jain temple bearing a lofty spire. The image is always worshipped by the faithful, three times a day, with various types of ceremonies. Now there was a time in the past, when that lamp of the Calukya dynasty, King Bhimadeva, reigned, when a Muslim chieftain named Atanubukka came with his army from the country of the Turukkas and destroyed the ramparts of the capital city of Anahilavadaya. In his rampages he came upon the temple of Pargvanatha that I just mentioned, in the village of Harikankhi. His army forced its way into the temple and broke the image of Pargvanatha. The chieftain chased all the villagers from their homes and then went back whence he had come. The villagers returned. The Jains gathered. When they saw the image of the Lord lying there broken they all began to talk at once, ‘Oh no! Can it be that even the Lord, with all his wondrous powers, has been destroyed by the barbarians? Where are his powers now”. But then, while they were all fast asleep, the Gods whose task it is to guard the images of the Tirthamkaras, came to them and instructed them, ‘Gather together all the pieces of this image and put them in the innermost chamber of the temple. Shut the door tight and lock it. Wait a full six months. At the end of that period of time, open the door and you will see that the image will be in perfect condition, intact, with all of its limbs’. (...) And when the sixth month was over, they opened the door and they saw the image of the Lord Paréva, intact, all its limbs unharmed. There were just a few spots on the nails and on the thumbs. The Jain community was delighted. They began to worship the image again, just as they had always done before. Jains, monks, nuns, and lay followers alike, came from all éver. They held a big festival in which they carried the image on a processional car. The Glorious Lord Pargvanatha, who possesses so many marvelous qualities, does so many astonishing feats. This was only one of them."

"Long ago in the city Avajjha lived the son of Dasaratha, whose name was Pauma. He was the eighth of the Baladevas and was an extremely pious Jain. Now this Pauma had for a long time been worshipping a jewelled image of the future Lord of the Jinas, the Glorious Parsvanatha, in his own private temple. That image removed for him all obstacles to success and happiness, and had proved its miraculous powers on many an occasion and in such a way that no one doubted their existence. In time Pauma came to know that in this age of declining virtue the True Faith would soon suffer tremendous reversals in the East of the country. As the saying goes, nothing can endure forever in all its perfection; even the mine of rubies one day must cease to yield good stones. He therefore had the superintending deities of the image transport it through the sky to the city Suddhadanti, in the country of Sattasaya. There they hid the image in an underground chamber. And knowing that the times were bad, the superintending deities changed its substance from precious jewels into ordinary stone. After much time had passed, there appeared in the monastic lineage Sodhativala a teacher by the name of Vimalasiri. He received the following instructions in a dream, ‘In an underground chamber at such and such a location there is an image of the Glorious Parvanatha. Dig it up and worship it’. The monk then told this to his lay disciples. Together they brought the image out of the underground chamber. They made a temple for it and installed the image in that temple. They began to worship it three times a day. But the times were such that the city was abandoned and the superintending deities became lax in their duties, and so it could happen that the Muslims who had come there by chance saw the image of the Blessed Lord Parsvanatha. Those wicked Muslims smashed the head off the image and left it lying there on the ground. Now a shepherd, grazing his flocks, passed by that place and saw the head of the God lying on the ground like that. He wept piteously and put the head back on the Lord’s body. It stuck perfectly, without even so much as a line to reveal the slash. And through the power of the Lord it stayed there, too, and has stayed right up to this very day and is still much worshipped. Thus is the account of the Glorious Lord Parsvanitha in the city of Suddhadanti, related by the Glorious monk Jinaprabha, exactly as he heard it told."

"It was Gujarat, however, that has always remained the Jain country par excellence. Here kings are reported to have been 'seized by a desire for asceticism' and committed religious suicide in the Jain style by starving themselves. Here, in Valabhi, Saurashtra, the canonical Jain works were put to writing in the fifth century AD.81 Jain temples are found in Gujarat as early as the sixth and seventh centuries AD. The religion was patronized by the Cha vadas, Solankis and Vaghelas of Anahilvada, by the Maitrakas of Valabhi, while the Caulukyas, in particular the Shaivist king Kuma rapala (1144-74), under the guidance of Hemacandra, set out to make Gujarat a Jain state. Edicts were promulgated against the taking of animal life, and Kumarapala is said to have erected another 14,140 Jain temples. Many Jain temples in Gujarat, especially in Anahilvada, in effect, date from the middle of the twelfth century.85 Jain architecture, always chaste and elegant, was basically Hindu, but because of their wealth the Jains were much more given to temple-building, becoming the greatest patrons of architecture in Western India, and patronizing mosques at times. Mter Kumarapala's reign, Jainism went into decline even in Gujarat. His successor Ajayapala (1173-76) began to destroy many of the temples built in the previous reign and in general did not favour Jainism much. Jain temples were beginning to be swept to destruction by the Muslims in Anahilvada as early as 1298 AD.88 From the end of the thirteenth century until Akbar's reign, at the close of the sixteenth century, no Jain or Hindu temple of any pretensions was raised in Gujarat, but destroyed temples, like at Satruiijaya, Palitana, and at other places, were sometimes rebuilt. Early Portuguese writers still testify to the strength of Jainism in Gujarat in the sixteenth century but opine that the Gujaratis were deprived of their kingdom by the Muslims because of their kind- heartedness. Varthema describes the Gujaratis as 'a certain race which eats nothing that has blood, and never kills any living thing ... and these people are neither Moors nor heathens; ... if they were baptized, they would all be saved by virtue of their works, for they never do to others what they would not do unto them."

"In Rajasthan, Jainism had become a great cultural force from the eighth century onwards, and even more in the eleventh to thirteenth centuries, under the patronage of Rajput rulers who themselves adhered to Shaivism and Vaishnavism.77 Rajasthan, and especially Chitorgarh, abounds in Jain antiquities from the latter period. But, in the long run, Jainism could not escape Islamic iconoclasm in this region. The Muslims razed many of the Jain temples to the ground, destroyed Jain libraries, and allegedly killed unknown numbers of followers. Later Jain temples of the area are copies of the earlier ones of Abu and Sanganer, but of inferior quality, and showing influence of Muslim architecture. Jainism, nonetheless, remained quite significant in Rajasthan; and almost every state in this area, and every principality or jagir in the early modern period was served by more than one Jain minister or manager. And most of the castes and gotras among the Jains in North India claim to have their origin in Rajasthan."

"In view of deliberate attempts in recent decades to project Buddhism and Jainism as separate religions, distinct from Hinduism, it would be in order to deal with them in passing. the attempts have clearly been motivated by the design to separate their followers from the parent body called Hinduism just as Sikhs have been to an extent. Though not to the same extent as in the case of Sikhs, the attempts have succeeded in as much as neo-Buddhists and at least some Jains have come to regard themselves as non-Hindus. In reality, however, Buddhisms and Jainism have been no more than movements within the larger body of Hinduism, not significantly different from Lingayats, Saktas or Bhaktas of more recent times."

"Over time, apparent misunderstandings have arisen over the origins of Jainism and relationship with its sister religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. There has been an ongoing debate between Jainism and Vedic Hinduism as to which revelation preceded the other. What is historically known is that there was a tradition along with Vedic Hinduism known as Sramana Dharma. Essentially, the sramana tradition included in its fold, the Jain and Buddhist traditions, which disagreed with the eternality of the Vedas, the needs for ritual sacrifices and the supremacy of the Brahmins."

"As to Jains being Hindu dissenters, and, therefore governable by Hindu law, we are not told this date of secession [...] Jainism certainly has a longer history than is consistent with its being a creed of dissenters from Hinduism."