Astronomers from the United States

"Gee, I thought we'd be a lot higher at MECO!"

"It was a bank holiday, and Mr Tompkins, the little clerk of a big city bank, slept late and had a leisurely breakfast. Trying to plan his day, he first thought about going to some afternoon movie and, opening the morning paper, turned to the entertainment page. But none of the films looked attractive to him. He detested all this Hollywood stuff, with infinite romances between popular stars. If only there were at least one film with some real adventure, something unusual and maybe even fantastic about it. But there was none. Unexpectedly, his eye fell on a little notice in the corner of the page. The local university was announcing a series of lectures on the problems of modern physics, and this afternoon's lecture was to be about Einstein's Theory of Relativity. Well, that might be something!"

"There was a young fellow from Trinity, Who took the square root of infinity. But the number of digits, Gave him the fidgets; He dropped Math and took up Divinity."

"It is well known that theoretical physicists cannot handle experimental equipment; it breaks whenever they touch it. Pauli was such a good theoretical physicist that something usually broke in the lab whenever he merely stepped across the threshold. A mysterious event that did not seem at first to be connected with Pauli's presence once occurred in Professor J. Franck's laboratory in Göttingen. Early one afternoon, without apparent cause, a complicated apparatus for the study of atomic phenomena collapsed. Franck wrote humorously about this to Pauli at his Zürich address and, after some delay, received an answer in an envelope with a Danish stamp. Pauli wrote that he had gone to visit Bohr and at the time of the mishap in Franck's laboratory his train was stopped for a few minutes at the Göttingen railroad station. You may believe this anecdote or not, but there are many other observations concerning the reality of the Pauli Effect!"

"With very few exceptions, philosophers do not know much science and do not understand it, which is quite natural because science lies beyond the boundaries of typical philosophical subjects such as ethics, aestetics, and gnosiology. But while in the free countries philosophers are quite harmless, in the dictatorial countries they constitute a great danger for the development of science. In Russia, state philosophers are bred in the Communist Academy in Moscow and are placed in all the educational and research institutions to prevent the professors and researchers from falling into idealistic, capitalistic heresies. The state philosophers are usually familiar with the subject of the research institution they are going to supervise, being either former schoolteachers or having taken in the academy a one-semester course on the subject in question. But they rank in the their power above the scientific directors of the institution and can veto any research project on publication which deviates from the correct ideology. One notable example of philosophical dictatorship in Russian science was the prohibition of Einstein's theory of relativity on the ground that it denied world ether, "the existence of which follows directly from the philosophy of dialectical materialism". It is interesting to note that the existence of the "world ether" was doubted long before Einstein by Engels, who in one of his letter to friend wrote "...the world ether, if it exists"."

"I decided to get Ph.D. in experimental physics because experimental physicists have their own room in the Institute where they can hang their coat, whereas theoretical physicists have to hang their coat at the entrance."

"I feel that matter has properties which physics tells you."

"So I am just sitting and waiting, listening, and if something exciting comes, I just jump in."

"If the expansion of the space of the universe is uniform in all directions, an observer located in anyone of the galaxies will see all other galaxies running away from him at velocities proportional to their distances from the observer."

"It took less than an hour to make the atoms, a few hundred million years to make the stars and planets, but five billion years to make man!"

"The physicist George Gamow was also an entertaining popularizer. He once told the story of how with his wife and their baby daughter he visited the Leaning Tower of Pisa. As they climbed the steps, they noticed an increasingly musty smell, which they first attributed to the ancient walls of the building. Then, however, they began to suspect their little girl, and by the time they reached the top it was clear that she needed immediate attention. “And from the very place,” explained Gamow, raising his arm and his voice dramatically, “where Galileo launched his experimental objects, we also propelled…”"

"Rutherford did not pretend to understand quantum mechanics, but he understood that the Gamow formula would give his accelerator a crucial advantage. Even particles accelerated at much lower energies... would be able to penetrate into nuclei. Rutherford invited Gamow to Cambridge in January 1929... [They] became firm friends and Gamow's insight gave Rutherford the impetus to go full steam ahead with the building of his accelerator."

"Take a look at George Gamow, who is now recognized as one of the great cosmologists of the last hundred years. I speculate that he probably didn't win the Nobel Prize because people could not take him seriously. He wrote children's books. His colleagues have publicly stated his writing children's books on science had an adverse effect on his scientific reputation, and people could not take him seriously when he and his colleagues proposed that there should be a cosmic background radiation, which we now know to be one of the greatest discoveries of 20th-century physics."

"Gamow was rather childlike, always wanting to play, and introducing a sort of light humor into all occasions. He was very fond of drawing pictures of Mickey Mouse. He added a lot to the entertainment that we had. He had some good ideas, applications which led to important developments in quantum theory, but I do not think he did any work which was very deep."

"If contribution in life is measured by the influence of a person's best ideas, then George Gamow's contribution has been immense. He explained radioactive decay, described reaction mechanisms and rates in the interior of stars, proposed how the elements were made, and suggested how DNA might provide the code for protein synthesis. Those topics have evolved into major fields of science..."

"Es Gamow't wieder"

"Gamow was fantastic in his ideas. He was right, he was wrong. More often wrong than right. Always interesting; … and when his idea was not wrong it was not only right, it was new."

"By an incredible coincidence, Gamow and Edward Condon, who had discovered simultaneously and independently the explanation of radioactivity (one in Russia, the other in this country), came to spend the last ten years of their lives within a hundred yards of each other in Boulder."

"It is, indeed an incredible fact that what the human mind, at its deepest and most profound, perceives as beautiful finds its realization in external nature.… What is intelligible is also beautiful."

"All the standard equations of mathematical physics can be separated and solved in ."

"The black holes of nature are the most perfect macroscopic objects there are in the universe: the only elements in their construction are our concepts of space and time. And since the general theory of Relativity provides only a single unique family of solutions for their descriptions, they are the simplest objects as well."

"I was very fortunate to know the great astrophysicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar during his last years. Chandra, as we called him, was the first to discover that general relativity implied that stars above a certain mass would collapse into what we now call a black hole. Much later, he wrote a beautiful book describing the different solutions of the equations of general relativity that describe black holes. As I got to know him, Chandra shocked me by speaking of a deep anger toward Einstein. Chandra was upset that Einstein, after inventing general relativity, had abandoned this masterpiece, leaving it to others to struggle through it."

"The Big Bang theory says nothing about what banged, why it banged, or what happened before it banged."

"It is said that there’s no such thing as a free lunch. But the universe is the ultimate free lunch."

"The recent developments in cosmology strongly suggest that the universe may be the ultimate free lunch."

"It becomes very tempting to ask whether, in principle, it's possible to create a universe in the laboratory—or a universe in your backyard—by man-made processes."

"It turns out that the energy of a gravitational field—any gravitational field—is negative. During inflation, as the universe gets bigger and bigger and more and more matter is created, the total energy of matter goes upward by an enormous amount. Meanwhile, however, the energy of gravity becomes more and more negative. The negative gravitational energy cancels the energy in matter, so the total energy of the system remains whatever it was when inflation started—presumably something very small. ...This capability for producing matter in the universe is one crucial difference between the inflationary model and the previous model."

"We should not act like we know that the universe began with the Big Bang... we'll see that there are strong suggestions that the Big Bang was perhaps not really the beginning of existence, but really just the beginning of our local universe, often called a pocket universe."

"What the Big Bang theory tells us, is that at least our region of the universe 13.82 billion years ago, was an extremely hot, dense uniform soup of particles which in the conventional standard Big Bang model filled literally all of space—and now we certainly believe that it filled essentially all of the space that we have access to—uniformly. ...This is contrary to a popular cartoon image of the Big Bang, which is just plain wrong. The cartoon image of the Big Bang is the image of a small egg of highly dense matter that then exploded and spewed out into empty space. That is not the scientific picture of the Big Bang. ...If there was a small egg that exploded into empty space, you would certainly expect that today you would see something different if you were looking towards where the egg was, versus looking the opposite direction, but we don't see any effect like that. When we look around the sky the universe looks completely uniform, on average, in all directions, to a very high degree of accuracy... So we don't see a sign of an egg having happened anywhere. Rather, the Big Bang seems to have happened everywhere, uniformly."

"The conventional Big Bang theory does not say anything about what caused the expansion. It really is only a theory about the aftermath of a bang. In the scientific version of the Big Bang, the universe starts with everything already expanding, with no explanation of how that expansion started... So the Scientific version of the Big Bang theory is not really a theory of a bang, it's really a theory of the aftermath of a bang."

"The conventional Big Bang theory says nothing about where all the matter came from. The theory really assumes that for every particle that we see in the universe today, there was, at the very beginning, at least some precursor particle, if not the same particle, with no explanation of where all those particles came from."

"In short what I like to say is that the Big Bang says nothing about what banged, why it banged, or what happened before it banged. It really has no bang in the Big Bang. It is a bangless theory, despite its name."

"Inflation is a prequel to the conventional Big Bang theory. ...It does provide a theory of the propulsion that drove the universe into this humungous episode of expansion which we call the Big Bang."

"The miracle of physics that I'm talking about here is something that was actually known since the time of Einstein's general relativity; that gravity is not always attractive. Gravity can act repulsively. Einstein introduced this in 1916... in the form of the cosmological constant, and the original motivation of modifying the equations of general relativity to allow this was because Einstein thought that the universe was static, and he realized that ordinary gravity would cause the universe to collapse if it was static. ...The fact that general relativity can support this gravitational repulsion, still being consistent with all the principles that general relativity incorporates, is the important thing which Einstein himself did discover.."

"Inflation takes advantage of this possibility... to let gravity be the repulsive force that drove the universe into the period of expansion that we call the Big Bang. In fact, when one combines general relativity with conventional ideas, now, in particle physics there really is a pretty clear indication, I should say, not quite a prediction... that at very high energy densities one expects to find states of matter which literally turn gravity on its head and cause gravity to become repulsive."

"What it takes to produce a gravitational repulsion is a negative pressure. According to general relativity, it turns out... both pressures and energy densities can produce gravitational fields, unlike Newtonian physics, where it's only mass densities that produce gravitational fields."

"A positive pressure produces an attractive gravitational field... Positive pressures are just sort of normal pressures and attractive gravity is normal gravity, so normal pressures produce normal gravity, but it is possible to have negative pressures, and negative pressures produce repulsive gravity, and that's the secret of what makes inflation possible."

"A very plausible choice for when inflation might have happened would be when the energy scales of the universe were at the scale of grand unified theories... which unify the weak, strong and electromagnetic interactions into a single unified interaction. ..we're talking about energies which are about 1016 times the equivalent energy of a proton mass. ...the initial patch would only have to be the ridiculously small size of about 10-28 cm across to be able to lead ultimately to the creation of everything that we see on the vast scale of which we see it."

"The gravitational repulsion created by this small patch of repulsive gravity material would be, then, the driving force of the Big Bang and it would cause the region to undergo exponential expansion... there is a certain doubling time, and if you wait the same amount of time it doubles again, and if you wait the same amount of time it doubles again... and it's because these doublings build up so dramatically, it doesn't take very much time to build the whole universe. In about 100 doublings this tiny patch of 10-28 cm can become large enough, not to be the universe, but to be a small marble-sized region which will then ultimately become the observed universe, as it continues to coast outward after inflation ends."

"The discovery of the CMB cemented the notion of a big bang. But for all its elegance, the theory had thrown up some intractable problems. Soon after the CMB was discovered, Dicke went to Cornell to talk about... the flatness problem. ...the universe seemed to be flat, meaning that the ratio of actual matter density to the critical density... Omega, was very close to 1. And for today's universe to have Omega anywhere near 1, its value just one second after the big bang had to be exactly 1 to a precision of about fourteen decimal places. Nothing in the laws of physics suggested why... In Dicke's audience was a young postdoc named Alan Guth. He was a particle physicist who had no interest in cosmology. But something about the talk tickled his fancy and set him on a journey that would solve the big-bang theory's most frustrating problem."

"Most of what we know, or believe we know, about the early moments of the universe is thanks to an idea called inflation theory first propounded in 1979 by a junior particle physicist, then at Stanford, now at MIT, named Alan Guth. He was thirty-two years old and, by his own admission, had never done anything much before. He would probably never have had his great theory except that he happened to attend a lecture on the Big Bang given by none other than Robert Dicke. The lecture inspired Guth to take an interest in cosmology, and in particular in the birth of the universe."

"We now address two of the drawbacks [of the standard Big Bang theory]... the flatness problem and the horizon problem. In the early 1980's, Alan Guth resolved these two problems with his inflationary theory. His basic idea was that the universe enters a false vacuum state shortly after the Big Bang, then tunnels out and expands exponentially. We choose to discuss Guth's original model (now called classical model or old inflation) for pedagogic reasons. Guth's model has many nice qualitative features; it does not work quantitatively. Therefore, A. Linde, A. Albrecht, P. Steinhardt, and others constructed new models as remedies. It is not clear which of the new models is correct..."

"According to Guth, he had discovered the equations of De Sitter's cosmology (1917), written in the form introduced somewhat later by Georges Lemaitre (1925), as part of his MIT Thesis, before introducing inflation as the starting point of his new cosmology. After taking care, by means of inflation of the "monopole problem". ...Guth went one step further to solve the so called "flatness problem". ...Guth finally goes on to explain how his theory of inflation solves the "horizon problem". ...we will analyze in some detail to what extent the "monopole problem", the "flatness problem" and the "horizon problem" require, or not, cosmic inflation as a problem solving "paradigm"."

"Prior to the downfall of the GUT in the mid 1980s, Alan Guth, an elementary particle theorist, was trying to explain the scarcity of the magnetic monopoles in the universe. The standard cosmological model predicted that there should be as many monopoles as there are nucleons! Since all attempts at finding a monopole had failed, Guth suggested that the universe must have had an inflation phase during which it expanded exponentially. This exponential growth was so rapid that it diluted any existing monopoles so much so that today there may be only a few in our observable universe."

"One of the issues with the then generally accepted theory of the Big Bang was the uniformity of temperature measured in any direction out in the universe, no explosion on Earth could occur as uniformly. In the early 1980's Alan Guth postulated that the universe initially grew from a small enough volume, a fraction of the size of an atom, for temperature to have equalized, within its first billionth of a second of age, to then expand exponentially..."

"It was fortunate that Alan Guth did his work at the same time that another idea came into fashion, which was the theory that we could understand why the universe contains matter and not antimatter in terms of some asymmetry, some favoritism for matter over antimatter in the early universe; it's no good having a scheme that can inflate the universe to enormous dimension of it's not possible to create matter to fill that large universe."

"I may go down in history as the guy who killed Pluto."

"Are physical forces alone at work there, or has evolution begotten something more complex, something not unakin to what we know on Earth as life?"

"The whole object of science is to synthesize, and so simplify; and did we but know the uttermost of a subject we could make it singularly clear."

"Formulae are the anaesthetics of thought, not its stimulants and to make any one think is far better worth while than cramming him with ill-considered, and therefore indigestible, learning."

"That Mars is inhabited by beings of some sort or other we may consider as certain as it is uncertain what these beings may be."

"War is a survival among us from savage times and affects now chiefly the boyish and unthinking element of the nation. The wisest realize that there are better ways for practicing heroism and other and more certain ends of insuring the survival of the fittest. It is something a people outgrow. But whether they consciously practice peace or not, nature in its evolution eventually practices it for them, and after enough of the inhabitants of a globe have killed each other off, the remainder must find it more advantageous to work together for the common good."

"So far as thought may peer into the past, the epic of our solar system began with a great catastrophe. Two suns met. What had been, ceased; what was to be, arose. Fatal to both progenitors, the event dated a stupendous cosmic birth."

"In the great desert of northern Arizona the traveller, threading his way across a sage-brush and cacti plain shut in by abrupt-sided shelves of land rising here and there some hundreds of feet higher, suddenly comes upon a petrified forest."

"We can assume that in a relatively short time — perhaps within 100 million years — the one celled organism evolved into a colony of cells. With the further passage of time, groups of cells within those colonies assumed specialized functions of food-gathering, digestion, the structural features of an outer skin, and so on; thus began the stage of evolution leading to the complex, many-celled creatures which dominate life today. The fossil record contains no trace of these preliminary stages in the development of many-celled organisms. The first clues to the existence of relatively advanced forms of life consist of a few barely discernible tracks, presumably made in the primeval slime by soft, wriggling wormlike animals. These are found in rocks about one billion years old. These meager remains are the earliest traces of many-celled animal life on the planet."

"When a scientist writes about God, his colleagues assume he is either over the hill or going bonkers. In my case it should be understood from the start that I am an agnostic in religious matters. My views on this question are close to those of Darwin, who wrote, "My theology is a simple muddle. I cannot look at the Universe as the result of blind chance, yet I see no evidence of beneficent design in the details.""

"At this moment it seems as though science will never be able to raise the curtain on the mystery of creation. For the scientist who has lived by his faith in the power of reason, the story ends like a bad dream. He has scaled the mountains of ignorance; he is about to conquer the highest peak; as he pulls himself over the final rock, he is greeted by a band of theologians who have been sitting there for centuries."

"I believe that consciousness is the way information feels when being processed."

"So with each advance in understanding come new questions. So we need to be very humble. We shouldn't have hubris and think that we can understand everything. But history tells us that there is good reason to believe that we will continue making fantastic progress in the years ahead."

"If I get a parking ticket, there is always a parallel universe where I didn't. On the other hand, there is yet another universe where my car was stolen."

"... I would rather have questions that I can't answer than answers that I can't question. (variation of a remark by Richard Feynman)"

"Yet the complexity of all this pales in comparison to the patterns of information processing in your brain. Your roughly 100 billion neurons are constantly generating electrical signals (“firing”), which involves shuffling around billions of trillions of atoms, notably sodium, potassium, and calcium ions. The trajectories of these atoms form an extremely elaborate braid through spacetime, whose complex intertwining corresponds to storing and processing information in a way that somehow gives rise to our familiar sensation of self-awareness. There’s broad consensus in the scientific community that we still don’t understand how this works, so it’s fair to say that we humans don’t yet fully understand what we are. However, in broad brush, we might say this: You’re a pattern in spacetime. A mathematical pattern. Specifically, you’re a braid in spacetime—indeed, one of the most elaborate braids known."

"Imagine all the food you have eaten in your life and consider that you are simply some of that food, rearranged."

"We have to get away from this idea today with some fact-checking sites which might themselves have an agenda and you just trust it because of its reputation. You want to have these sort of systems [where] they earn your trust and that is completely transparent."

"Evolution endowed us with intuition only for those aspects of physics that had survival value for our distant ancestors, such as the parabolic orbits of flying rocks (explaining our penchant for baseball). A cavewoman thinking too hard about what matter is ultimately made of might fail to notice the tiger sneaking up behind and get cleaned right out of the gene pool. Darwin’s theory thus makes the testable prediction that whenever we use technology to glimpse reality beyond the human scale, our evolved intuition should break down. We’ve repeatedly tested this prediction, and the results overwhelmingly support Darwin. At high speeds, Einstein realized that time slows down, and curmudgeons on the Swedish Nobel committee found this so weird that they refused to give him the Nobel Prize for his relativity theory. At low temperatures, can flow upward. At high temperatures, colliding particles change identity; to me, an electron colliding with a and turning into a Z-boson feels about as intuitive as two colliding cars turning into a cruise ship. On microscopic scales, particles schizophrenically appear in two places at once, leading to the quantum conundrums... On astronomically large scales... weirdness strikes again: if you intuitively understand all aspects of black holes... put down this book and publish your findings before someone scoops you on the Nobel Prize for quantum gravity… [also,] the leading theory for what happened [in the early universe] suggests that space isn’t merely really really big, but actually infinite, containing infinitely many exact copies of you, and even more near-copies living out every possible variant of your life in two different types of parallel universes."

"What is real? Is there more to reality than meets the eye? Yes! was Plato’s answer over two millennia ago. In his famous cave analogy, he likened us to people who’d lived their entire lives shackled in a cave, facing a blank wall, watching the shadows cast by things passing behind them, and eventually coming to mistakenly believe that these shadows were the full reality. Plato argued that what we humans call our everyday reality is similarly just a limited and distorted representation of the true reality, and that we must free ourselves from our mental shackles to begin comprehending it."

"I... ended up at the , focusing on environmental issues. I wanted to... make our planet a better place, and felt that the main problem... [was] that we didn't properly use... technology... I... was intrigued by... creating economic incentives that aligned... egoism with the common good. ...I soon grew disillusioned, concluding that economics was... intellectual prostitution... rewarded for saying what the powers that be wanted to hear. ...[T]he book that changed everything: ' ...[W]hat did Feynman see that I missed in high school? ...I sat down with... '... and started reading, "If... all scientific knowledge were to be destroyed... " ...I read on ...I felt like I was having a religious experience I finally got it!"

"[W]hat I had been missing... and what Feynman realized: physics is the ultimate intellectual adventure, the quest to understand the deepest mysteries of our Universe. ...[I]t makes us see more clearly, adding to the beauty and wonder of the world ...[T]he lens of physics adds more beauty to the world ..."

"So this book... [is] my personal quest for the ultimate nature of reality."

"We're all born with curiosity, but at some point, school usually manages to knock that out of us. ...[M]y main responsibility as a teacher isn't to convey facts, but to rekindle that lost enthusiasm for asking questions."

"[W]e've repeatedly underestimated not only the size of our cosmos, but also the power of our human mind to understand it."

"There's no better guarantee of failure than convincing yourself that success is impossible..."

"Eratosthenes... knew that the Sun was straight overhead in... Syene at noon on the summer solstice, but that it was 7.2 degrees south of straight overhead in , located 794 kilometers farther north. He concluded... 794 kilometers corresponded to 7.2 degrees out of the 360 degrees... around Earth's circumference, so that the circumference must be... 39,700 km..."

"Aristarchos of Samos... was able to use to figure out... the distance between the Earth and the Sun. His conclusion... the Sun was about twenty times farther... than the Moon and therefore twenty times bigger than the Moon. In other words, the Sun was... over five times bigger than the Earth in diameter. This insight prompted Aristarchos to propose the heliocentric hypothesis long before Nicolaus Copernicus... It turned out to be quite difficult to tell precisely when the Moon was 50% illuminated, and the correct Sun-Moon angle... isn't 87 degrees but about 89.85 degrees... This makes... the Sun... almost twenty times further away... and about 109 times larger than the Earth... [T]his wasn't corrected until almost two thousand years later, so when Copernicus came along... the overall scale of his Solar System model was about twenty times too small..."

"Some ancients speculated that the stars were small holes in a black sphere through which distant light shone through. ...Giordano Bruno suggested that they were... like our Sun, just much farther away, perhaps with their own planets and civilizations... the Catholic Church had him burned at the stake in 1600."

"The very fabric of our physical world, space itself, could be a purely mathematical object in the sense that its only intrinsic properties are mathematical... as dimensionality, and topology."

"... achieved a breakthrough. Please hold your thumb at arm's length and alternate closing your left and right eyes a few times. ...[Y]our thumb appears to jump left and right by a certain angle relative to the background... [M]ove your thumb closer... and you'll see this jump angle growing. Astronomers call this jump angle '... [W]e can... compare telescopic photographs taken six months apart, when Earth is on opposite sides of the Sun. ...Bessel noticed ... ...moved a tiny angle, revealing its distance to be almost a million times that to the Sun... Now that Bessel knew the distance he used... [the] to figure out how luminous it was... in the same ballpark as the Sun... Giordano Bruno had been right after all!"

"In 1814... Joseph von Fraunhofer invented... a spectrograph, which let him separate white light into into a rainbow of colors... He discovered mysterious dark lines in the rainbow... and... the detailed positions of these lines... depended on what the light source was made of, constituting a kind of spectral fingerprint. During the following decades such spectra were measured and catalogued for many... substances. ...Sensationally, the spectrum of sunlight revealed that the Sun... contained elements... such as . Moreover... it revealed that stars are made of roughly the same mixture of gases as the Sun! This clinched it in favor of Bruno: stars are distant suns..."

"(…) the '. Here we interpret the wavefunction for an object as describing not some funky imaginary ensemble of possibilities for what the object might be doing, but rather the actual spatial collection of identical copies of the object that exist in our infinite space. Moreover, quantum uncertainty that you experience simply reflects your inability to self-locate in the Level I multiverse, i.e., to know which of your infinitely many copies throughout space is the one having your subjective perceptions."

"It’s absolutely crucial that we don’t conflate this internal reality with the external reality that it’s tracking, because the two are very different. My brain’s internal reality is like the dashboard of my car: a convenient summary of the most useful information. Just as my car’s dashboard tells me my speed, fuel level, motor temperature, and other things useful for a driver to be aware of, my brain’s dashboard/reality model tells me my speed and position, my hunger level, the air temperature, highlights of my surroundings and other things useful for the operator of a human body to be aware of."

"(…) the bottom line is that if you believe in an external reality independent of humans, then you must also believe that our physical reality is a mathematical structure. Nothing else has a baggage-free description. In other words, we all live in a gigantic mathematical object—one that’s more elaborate than a dodecahedron, and probably also more complex than objects with intimidating names such as Calabi-Yau manifolds, tensor bundles and Hilbert spaces, which appear in today’s most advanced physics theories. Everything in our world is purely mathematical—including you."

"A famous thorny issue in philosophy is the so-called infinite regress problem. For example, if we say that the properties of a diamond can be explained by the properties and arrangements of its carbon atoms, that the properties of a carbon atom can be explained by the properties and arrangements of its protons, neutrons and electrons, that the properties of a proton can be explained by the properties and arrangements of its quarks, and so on, then it seems that we’re doomed to go on forever trying to explain the properties of the constituent parts. The Mathematical Universe Hypothesis offers a radical solution to this problem: at the bottom level, reality is a mathematical structure, so its parts have no intrinsic properties at all!"

"(…) time is not an illusion, but the flow of time is. So is change. In spacetime, the future exists and the past doesn’t disappear."

"This implication of the Mathematical Universe Hypothesis is pretty radical, so please pause (…) take it in and think about it. What you’re aware of right at this moment feels not like a photo but like a movie clip. This movie isn’t reality—it exists only in your head, as part of your brain’s reality model. It contains lots of information about the actual external physical reality—as long as you aren’t dreaming or hallucinating—but still constitutes only a very heavily edited version of reality, akin to the evening news on TV, mainly featuring certain highlights of patterns nearby in space and time that your brain thinks are useful for you to be aware of."

"(…) no spectator is needed, because your consciousness basically is your reality model. I think that consciousness is the way information feels when being processed in certain complex ways. Since the different parts of your brain interact with each other, different parts of your reality model can interact with each other, so the model of you can interact with your model of the outside world, giving rise to the subjective sensation of the former perceiving the latter."

"My guess is that we’ll one day understand consciousness as yet another phase of matter. I’d expect there to be many types of consciousness just as there are many types of liquids, but in both cases, they share certain characteristic traits that we can aim to understand."

"We humans replace the bulk of both our "hardware" (e.g., our cells) and our "software" (e.g., our memories) many times in our life span. Nonetheless, we perceive ourselves as stable and permanent. Likewise, we perceive objects other than ourselves as permanent. Or rather, what we perceive as objects are those aspects of the world that display a certain permanence. For instance, when observing the ocean, we perceive the moving waves as objects because they display a certain permanence, even though the water itself is only bobbing up and down. Similarly (…) we perceive only those aspects of the world that are fairly stable against quantum decoherence."

"If there’s a singularity, would the resulting AI, or AIs, feel conscious and self-aware? Would they have an internal reality? If not, they’re for all practical purposes zombies. Of all traits that our human form of life has, I feel that consciousness is by far the most remarkable. As far as I’m concerned, it’s how our Universe gets meaning, so if our Universe gets taken over by life that lacks this trait, then it’s meaningless and just a huge waste of space."

"But I’ve suddenly changed my mind and turned more optimistic about our cosmic significance. Why? Because I’ve come to believe that advanced evolved life is very rare, yet has huge future potential, making our place in space and time remarkably significant."

"Let’s instead define life very broadly, simply as a process that can retain its complexity and replicate. What’s replicated isn’t matter (made of atoms) but information (made of bits) specifying how the atoms are arranged. When a bacterium makes a copy of its DNA, no new atoms are created, but a new set of atoms are arranged in the same pattern as the original, thereby copying the information. In other words, we can think of life as a self-replicating information-processing system whose information (software) determines both its behavior and the blueprints for its hardware."

"How is technology changing the hierarchical nature of our world? History reveals an overall trend toward ever more coordination over ever-larger distances, which is easy to understand: new transportation technology makes coordination more valuable (by enabling mutual benefit from moving materials and life forms over larger distances) and new communication technology makes coordination easier. When cells learned to signal to neighbors, small multicellular organisms became possible, adding a new hierarchical level. When evolution invented circulatory systems and nervous systems for transportation and communication, large animals became possible. Further improving communication by inventing language allowed humans to coordinate well enough to form further hierarchical levels such as villages, and additional breakthroughs in communication, transportation and other technology enabled the empires of antiquity. Globalization is merely the latest example of this multi-billion-year trend of hierarchical growth."

"Why is at the beginning of time so low, and the entropy in a black hole so high? ...We ...don't know that the entropy was low ...We don't even know if there was a beginning of time. ...[E]ntropy ...is this measure of how messy things are, so my room ...tends to get higher and higher entropy, messier and messier. Why... eggs fall on the floor and break, and not fly up and unbreak? People argued about that for a very long time until the shocking insight... that it was very low 13.4 billion years ago at the time when those baby pictures of the universe were given off... the cosmic microwave background. So our flow of time... has something to do with the origin of our universe? That... we have learned. ...[I]f you take seriously the idea of inflation and also the theory that the does not collapse, according to Hugh Everett, you can do some math and get an explanation... but... it's a wonderful mystery, and I'm open to all ideas... and black holes... there are great truths yet to be discovered."

"For Neils Bohr and the Copenhagen interpretation, I respond with Hamlet, "Something is rotten in the state of Denmark." ...The does not collapse. ...There is absolutely no experimental evidence for it. It appears to collapse, yes, but what Hugh Everett showed so beautifully... in the... 50s and 60s is that even if it does not collapse... If you just drop that entirely and just... go with the Schrödinger equation all the way, it's going to appear like it collapses... according to all the usual Copenhagen interpretation rules... [I]t doesn't even have anything particularly fundamental to do with quantum mechanics. ...If you have any sort of physics which lets you make copies of an observer, classically or quantum mechanically, you will experience apparent randomness. ...Suppose you ...clone yourself ...so you can get twice as much done? ...One copy ...wakes up in Room 1 and the other... in Room 2... Are you going to see... a sign that says Room 1 or will you see a 2? You cannot predict this... because... there will be two experiences. ...It seems random. I'm going to see either... with equal probability. This is what fundamentally is happening in quantum physics too. The quantum reality is just bigger than the one we thought we lived in before quantum mechanics, and it has this ability that it can start with something which is one way and make [it] effectively being in two ways. [W]hen we make a measurement, sometimes we find out which copy we were. So I wouldn't worry too much about the way a function collapse[s]."

"It depends... on what you measure outrageousness in... If what you mean is that something is more extravagant if it... involves somehow having more particles, or reality being bigger... then sure. But... maybe the kind of simplicity that we should value with Occam's razor is rather that the math is simple. The equations are simple."

"Here... is the Schrödinger equation [i \hbar \frac{d}{d t}\vert\Psi(t)\rangle = \hat H\vert\Psi(t)\rangle]... and what it's actually saying is that the state of the world, that's this Greek letter Ψ there with the bracket around it... It's saying that the rate of change of it... depends on the current state of the world, when you do this operation on it and for the math nerds, this is a linear operation... and what that just means is, as Everett has pointed out and many others have known for a very long time is that, in some circumstances, two different solutions to this can do their parallel thing. We can talk at... length about the discoveries... about decoherence and why it is that sometimes these different parallel branches are unaware or each other, but my point is... if you give a science nerd colloquium... at a physics department... ideally, you should also start in the same way you start discussing this with your grandma. Just at a very high level... here are the cool ideas, and then you can go as deep as the audience or the listener wants, from there."

"We don't know for sure that the Schrödinger equation is actually that accurate a description of nature either. That's why it's so exciting to see what's going to happen with the quantum computer efforts... Will they ultimately fail because physics isn't fully described by the Schrödinger equation, or will they actually succeed... This is where ultimately our experimental friends will... give us crucial insights..."

"I'll be the first to admit that we ultimately don't know what's going on exactly with quantum mechanics, and my personal guess... is that even quantum mechanics is probably an emergent theory, maybe an approximation of... something deeper. Maybe we can get it out of GU somehow, but... I also would guess... the opposite of Roger Penrose... that gravity doesn't really have much to do with this. I think you can... be in a spaceship far away... from any... important gravitating objects and do your little quantum experiments with a Schrödinger-like apparatus and you would get all the same fascinating things happening. So... ignoring gravity... ignoring relativistic effects altogether, you still have this thing people love fighting about. Does the wave function collapse or not, and that's why I'm so interested in this kind of discussion..."

"[I]t's... a big mistake as a species if we don't create institutions and governments which support science. There have been a number of... economic studies that have shown... that investing in basic science is the highest return on investment, basically ever... Inventing the ... just basic... physics research... has benefited us so much, in so many ways... Inventing calculus... didn't cost that much, but it's... so, so valuable... This comes back to the whole media question again. There are much more people who have heard about the Kardashians than... can name three living scientists... let alone twenty. ...[W]e've created a culture where scientists... not only are they not particularly known... or viewed as role models or heroes, but they are even very actively attacked by... folks with power with whom what scientists are saying is inconvenient... One of the best things we can do for science funding is to create a less screwed-up media landscape where we actually appreciate how much we benefit from scientific research. That governments will actually support it again. ...We spend two billion dollars a day or more, in this county alone, on military... If you can get a puny, puny fraction of that into scientific research, we wouldn't even be having to have this conversation about how we get funding."

"My favorite movie of all time is... Life of Brian. We really should try and reenact this epic skit, "What have the Romans ever done for us?" by saying "What has physics ever done for us? ...But ...besides ...the internet and transistors, what has physics ever done for us?""

"Physicists, we have a sort of arrogance... which has harmed us a lot. ...We forget that we're in a bubble and ...that there's actually a science of how you persuade people ...of how to communicate, and other people have studied that at great length. ...[T]he average person who works making cigarette ads is much more scientific about the way they get their message out than the average physicist. ...[I]t comes not from stupidity ...but from arrogance ...We're not going to stoop so low that we're going to be scientific about how we communicate... about how we advocate. We have to get off our high horses... If you get invaded by Hitler's army, you shouldn't just say... "Tanks are immoral, we're going to fight them with swords." We have to be scientific also about standing up for ourselves and our ideas... A second mistake... spending much more time infighting within our community of physicists, or... having one science pitted against another... for a few more tax dollars... losing sight of the fact that there's a tiny trickle of money that flows to all of the sciences combined... compared to... generic fruits of... corporate lobbying and random waste... So, get out of our bubble again. If we look at the big picture, it's kind of pathetic... that you have physicists, biologists, chemists, who together have built up most of the wealth of the world, and managed to be so incredibly navel-gazing and busy with infighting, and old-fashioned in how they communicate, that they have to come begging for money, and people don't listen to them."

"Tegmark’s career is a rather unusual story, mixing reputable science with an increasingly strong taste for grandiose nonsense. In this book he indulges his inner crank, describing in detail an utterly empty vision of the "ultimate nature of reality." What's perhaps most remarkable about the book is the respectful reception it seems to be getting... Before publishing his first paper, he changed his name from Shapiro to Tegmark (his mother’s name), figuring that there were too many Shapiros in physics for him to get attention... A very odd aspect of this whole story is that while Tegmark's big claim is that Math=Physics, he seems to have little actual interest in mathematics and what it really is as an intellectual subject. ...[W]hile "mathematical structures" are invoked in the book as the basis of everything, there's little to no discussion of the mathematical structures that modern mathematicians find interesting (although the idea of "symmetries" gets a mention). ...Perhaps the explanation of all this is somehow Freudian, since Tegmark’s father is the mathematician Harold Shapiro."

"(By moving) I'm making sounds on the drums of spacetime"… "Space itself wobbles and rumbles like a drum... Black holes can bang on spacetime like mallets on a drum."

"People used to try to hijack quantum mechanics and its inherent mystery to cast a cloud around determinism, in the hope that free will could survive modern physics. But that never worked very well. Since when does random chance equal free will? The only salvation for volition is a soul and faith and you’re not allowed to ask me about that."

"It might seem limited to impose our human perception to try to deduce the grandest cosmic code. But we are the product of the universe and I think it can be argued that the entire cosmic code is imprinted in us. Just as our genes carry the memory of our biological ancestors, our logic carries the memory of our cosmological ancestry. We are not just imposing human-centric notions on a cosmos independent of us. We are progeny of the cosmos and our ability to understand it is an inheritance."

"Topology and number theory are my faves."

"Sir, I am fully sensible of the greatness of that freedom, which I take with you on the present occasion; a liberty which seemed to me scarcely allowable, when I reflected on that distinguished and dignified station in which you stand, and the almost general prejudice and prepossession, which is so prevalent in the world against those of my complexion. I suppose it is a truth too well attested to you, to need a proof here, that we are a race of beings, who have long labored under the abuse and censure of the world; that we have long been looked upon with an eye of contempt; and that we have long been considered rather as brutish than human, and scarcely capable of mental endowments. Sir, I hope I may safely admit, in consequence of that report which hath reached me, that you are a man far less inflexible in sentiments of this nature, than many others; that you are measurably friendly, and well disposed towards us; and that you are willing and ready to lend your aid and assistance to our relief, from those many distresses, and numerous calamities, to which we are reduced. Now Sir, if this is founded in truth, I apprehend you will embrace every opportunity, to eradicate that train of absurd and false ideas and opinions, which so generally prevails with respect to us ; and that your sentiments are concurrent with mine, which are, that one universal Father hath given being to us all ; and that he hath not only made us all of one flesh, but that he hath also, without partiality, afforded us all the same sensations and endowed us all with the same faculties ; and that however variable we may be in society or religion, however diversified in situation or color, we are all of the same family, and stand in the same relation to him. Sir, if these are sentiments of which you are fully persuaded, I hope you cannot but acknowledge, that it is the indispensible duty of those, who maintain for themselves the rights of human nature, and who possess the obligations of Christianity, to extend their power and influence to the relief of every part of the human race, from whatever burden or oppression they may unjustly labor under ; and this, I apprehend, a full conviction of the truth and obligation of these principles should lead all to."

"How pitiable is it to reflect, that although you were so fully convinced of the benevolence of the Father of Mankind, and of his equal and impartial distribution of these rights and privileges, which he hath conferred upon them, that you should at the same time counteract his mercies, in detaining by fraud and violence so numerous a part of my brethren, under groaning captivity and cruel oppression, that you should at the same time be found guilty of that most criminal act, which you professedly detested in others, with respect to yourselves"

"Evil communication corrupts good manners. I hope to live to hear that good communication corrects bad manners."

"Presumption should never make us neglect that which appears easy to us, nor despair make us lose courage at the sight of difficulties."

"Now let us look too at Benjamin Banneker. Look at his correspondence with Thomas Jefferson. Here's a man, some end part in the absolute center of slavery who laid out the plans for Washington, D.C. Here was a man who had been a slave, and his parents were slaves. One must perceive this and see that he was not caught up by that same system which will smother in an attempt to protect. And one walks down the same century and sees the list of thousands of Black people who said "I've got to break away. Thank you for your caring but I must break away." You cannot blame the family for its attempts to say, "Stay, I can hold you. As long as I can touch you I feel more secure." No matter how it says it. The family may say "You'll never make it." Whatever it says it means stay with me so I can keep my eyes on you. The family is not to be blamed for that."

"I thank you, sincerely, for your letter of the 19th instant, and for the Almanac it contained. No body wishes more than I do, to see such proofs as you exhibit, that nature has given to our black brethren talents equal to those of the other colors of men ; and that the appearance of the want of them, is owing merely to the degraded condition of their existence, both in Africa and America. I can add with truth, that no body wishes more ardently to see a good system commenced, for raising the condition, both of their body and mind, to what it ought to be, as far as the imbecility of their present existence, and other circumstances, which cannot be neglected, will admit. I have taken the liberty of sending your Almanac to Monsieur de Condozett, Secretary of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, and Member of the Philanthropic Society, because I considered it as a document, to which your whole color had a right for their justification, against the doubts which have been entertained of them. I am with great esteem, Sir, Your most obedient Humble Servant…"

"The left hand of creation"

"The Infinite has to be a relative concept. Go any distance: an infinite space means that there is more to be explored."

"Our knowledge of physics only takes us back so far. Before this instant of cosmic time, all the laws of physics or chemistry are as evanescent as rings of smoke."

"Science is paramount, but presents no challenge to a creed that rests on faith-based belief."

"The beauty of science and the nature of scientific revelations constitute part of the modern theologian's perspective and toolbox."

"Four predictions of the Big Bang Theory have now been verified - surely enough to quench even the most biased critics."

"One can always find inflationary models to explain whatever phenomenon is represented by the flavour of the month."

"Nowadays, cosmology seems rather unexciting."

"While politicians wrangled on the front pages of our newspapers, quiet revolutions looked within. Only occasionally did the news I thought most notable make the front page. All of it hinged on the steady building of connections which marks modern science."

"Science is about continuity of ideas, a web of connections."

"Bureaucracy increases as a doubling function in time, given resources. At the personal level, the cause is the persistent desire of every manager to hire at least one assistant. This provides the time constant for growth. Eventually this collides with the carrying capacity of society."

"I agree with the Emperor. Any technology distinguishable from magic is insufficiently advanced."

"Ideas about existence pale, beside the fact of existence."

"“Costly,” Zeb fretted. “How will I ever pay—” “The dead do not worry about debts,” she said. “You have such an engaging way of putting matters.” “Subtlety is wasted here.”"

"—Y’know, fact that nobody understands you doesn’t mean you’re some kinda genius."

"I started out with nothing and still have most of it left."

"She had once looked up the term ‘lawyer’ and found it was someone who helped you fight laws."

"When you have a Ph. D., you call them hypotheses, not guesses."

"Wars don’t determine who’s right, only who’s left."

"She could not understand why people feared new ideas. She was frightened by the old ones."

"Talkers never acted when they could talk."

"“You know, my dear, you’re wrong that suffering ennobles people.” She’d stopped to massage her hip, wincing. “It simply makes one cross.”"

"As Kurt Vonnegut pointed out in his first novel, Player Piano, some people love problem-solving and tinkering—and that is the final, irreducible driver of human history. Wars and faiths and leaders come and go, but the problem-solvers’ slow, steady work is the fulcrum upon which history turns."

"Trouble comes looking for you if you’re a fool."

"Must admit it felt good. First time in years anybody ever admitted I was right."

"He went to Los Angeles to do the work even though he hated the city; it was full of happy homogeneous people without structure or direction. While on the bus to work, it seemed to him Los Angeles went on long after it had already made its point."

"But the answers come when they will, one piece at a time."

"I would have to look, try to find a bridge that would make plausible what I knew but could scarcely prove. The standards of science are austere, unforgiving—and who would have it differently? I would have to hedge, to take one step back for each two forward, to compare and suggest and contrast, always sticking close to the data. And despite what I thought I knew now, the data would have to lead, they would have to show the way."

"A science fiction writer is—or should be—constrained by what is, or logically might be. That can mean simple fidelity to facts (which, in science, are always more important than theories—though Lord knows the two help shape each other, undermining the convenient, complacent separation of observer and observed). To me it also means heeding the authentic, the actual and concrete. Bad fiction uses the glossy generality; good writing needs the smattering of detail, the unrelenting busy mystery of the real."

"Thunder impresses, but it’s lightning does the work."

"In its studies and learned colloquy, Faz saw and felt the tales of Men. They seemed curiously convoluted, revolving about Self. What mattered most to those who loved tales was how they concluded. Yet all Men knew how each ended. Their little dreams were rounded with a sleep. So the point of a tale was not how it ended, but what it meant. The great inspiring epic rage of Man was to find that lesson, buried in a grave."

"Nothing could be sure it was itself the original. So the only intelligent course lay in enjoying whatever life a being felt—living like a mortal, in the moment."

"The role of boredom in human history is underrated."

"Every age is known by its pleasures, Fielding reads from the library readout. The twentieth introduced two: high speed and hallucinogenic drugs. Both proved dangerous in the long run, which made them even more interesting."

"Schools praised diversity but were culturally the same. Different skin color, same opinions."

"Marches don’t stop markets."

"Manufacturing creates wealth, services distribute it."

"A rich bank account did not mean rich ideas; in fact, often the reverse. The bigger your ass, the more you want to cover it."

"He didn’t regret growing older, it was a privilege denied to many."

"Boundaries got redrawn at the point of a sword, and the legal frame followed."

"Disintegration of structure equals information loss."

"Organic forms are in the universe of things and also reside in the universe of essences. There we cannot go. … You are a spontaneous product of the universe of things. We are not. This seems to give you … windows. It was difficult for me to monitor your domestic transmissions, they fill up with branches, spontaneous paths, nuances…"

"They will do anything for the worker, except become one."

"“The peers just fill the air with their speeches.” “And from what I've seen, vice versa.”"

"Only fools get to join."

"At least being prosperous set one apart in England; here it guaranteed nothing, not even taste."

"Everybody feels he has a right to a life of luxury — or at least comfort — so there’s a lot of frustration and resentment when the dream craps out."

"Yes, perhaps that was it. For decades now the picture of the world painted by the scientists had become strange, distant, unbelievable. Far easier, then, to ignore it than try to understand. Things were too complicated. Why bother? Turn on the telly, luv. Right."

"It was an example of what he thought of as the Law of Controversy: Passion was inversely proportional to the amount of real information available."

"To shine is better than to reflect."

"All right, he thought, so the details were not perfect. But maybe, in a sense, that was part of the magic, too."

"There was something about such reflex stupidity that never failed to irritate him."

"“One of the laws of nature,” Gordon said, “is that half the people have got to be below average.” ”For a Gaussian distribution, yeah,” Cooper said. “Sad, though.”"

"(Crank theories) always violated the first rule of a scientific model: they were uncheckable."

"Somehow to them, the press was always the judge of things scientific."

"“Free will again,” Cathy said. “Or free won’t,” Peterson said mildly."

"If you were damned certain you weren’t looking for something, there was a very good chance you wouldn’t see it."

"Religions do not teach doubt."

"You had to form for yourself a lucid language for the world, to overcome the battering of experience, to replace everyday life’s pain and harshness and wretched dreariness with — no not with certainty but with an ignorance you could live with. Deep ignorance, but still a kind that knew its limits. The limits were crucial."

"No matter how much you plan for it, the real thing seems curiously, well, unreal."

"It was getting the results that made science worth doing; the accolades were a thin, secondary pleasure."

"The personal was, compared with the tides of great nations, a bothersome detail."

"Modern economics and the welfare state borrowed heavily on the future."

"Science is like literature, a continuing dialog among diverse and conflicting voices, no one ever wholly right or wholly wrong, but a steady conversation forever provisional and personal and living."

"Major Sánchez grunted. “Nice word, ‘trivial.’ Means you got it—cojones—you got no worry. If you don’t—”"

"Every boy knows he is immortal, but his parents, they are not so sure."

"That thing doesn’t care about you. It won’t reward you when you take risks. It is simply indifferent. That’s the fact about it that most never learn. They hate it and fear it and finally ignore it. Because of that. It would be easier if it hated us. Maybe even if it hunted us. But it doesn’t care. Remember."

"“You’ll never get it to follow orders.” “Slaves follow orders, Colonel. You want something done a slave can’t, you don’t ask for a slave to do it.”"

"Man doesn’t have to take a gamble just ’cause it’s there. You got to learn that."

"“There’s plenty—” “Plenty is exactly what there’s none of.”"

"Soldiers for equality, uh? Glad you warned me. I’d have thought you were just thieves."

"You got to learn to wait people out. Hear what they got to say. Not enough to have a majority rule, y’know. Otherwise, the minority won’t be convinced and they won’t support the plan. No point havin’ people at your elbow who’re against what you’re doin’. So we just got to talk it out Quaker-style till ever’body agrees. More efficient in the long run."

"Manuel stared at the place where Piet had been. The man he had known so little would now lie in this place far beyond the moon of Islam and the cross of Rome and the hammer of Marx, in a territory open and without plan, beyond man and his encasing theories, his filters, beyond the closed rooms of the civilized mind."

"Once introduced into this world, life would never leave—there was no end to the explosive, consuming, voracious lust of long chain molecules to link and match and make of themselves yet more and more and again more."

"Life was growing and spreading here the way a disease propagates and eats and in the eating must kill. There should be something more, he thought. A kind of being might come into the universe that did not want to finally eat everything or to command all or to fill every niche and site with its own precious self. It would be a strange thing, with enough of the brute biology in it to have the quick, darting sense of survival. But it would also have to carry something of the machine in it, the passive and accepting quality of duty, of waiting, and of thought that went beyond the endless eating or the fear of dying. To such a thing the universe would not be a battleground but a theater, where eternal dramas were acted out and it was best to be in the audience. Perhaps evolution, which had been at the beginning a blind force that pushed against everything, could find a path to that shambling, curiously lasting state."

"The past was a jigsaw puzzle and you never had all the pieces."

"But no, the friend’s indictment was off target; he simply liked them tall, as long as they didn’t slump down in a forlorn effort to appear shorter. It seemed obvious to him that no woman looked good trying to be something she wasn’t."

"That was what drew him to mathematics. Not because it was rarefied, but because it probed to the subtle, deeper reality. People said that mathematicians were unworldly, and yammered on about how Einstein couldn’t make correct change. Nonsense. Einstein just didn’t give a damn. It was the subtle, the beautiful that concerned him."

"It was one thing to be instantly attracted to a woman, and another to like her independence, the way she took no notice of what he thought of her, one way or the other. She was indeed a modern woman—not aggressive, yet not submissive. A self-possessed apartness, a lack of cling... Yes, that was what held his attention: her reserve. The promise of depths you could not guess merely by seeing her in a swimsuit."

"“We will be just like the USA. Only we will be more honest.” ”We’ve got two parties.” “No you do not. You have only the party of the banks, of the money men, and they divide it into two pieces for your voting.”"

"Archeology is mostly a process of making associations between objects, and every discovery opens up possible resonances with things we already have. Sometimes, simply wandering through a museum or a site can open your eyes."

"Professors everywhere deplored examinations as an archaic technique, a fossil that recalled little red schoolhouses and memorizing the capitals of all the states. Regular progress and daily diligence mattered more, they felt, not an hour spent compressing months of learning onto a few sheets of paper. Far better to stress homework, classroom participation and the professor’s judgment. Regrettably, the large size of classes, and the requirements of society itself for pseudo-objective standards kept the exam structure firmly in place."

"She stood up. “Professional? Ha! My father used to say, you have to be able to tell a tracheotomist from a cutthroat. Well, I can.”"

"Maybe is not a theory, you know, it is merely maybe."

"Just because something’s crazy, doesn’t mean it’s wrong."

"She always dressed well, but he recognized the signs of insecurity; certitude was inversely proportional to the amount of makeup."

"Still, Claire hated Charlotte Brontë’s comment that she would have given all her talent to be beautiful. That condemned you always to play somebody else’s game—and, when your looks failed—finally to lose."

"This was what never failed to stir her—the unfathomable gulf between today’s thinking and the way the ancients thought. They were truly alien, not merely innocent agrarians with a foolish faith."

"In popularizing a scientific development it was always crucial to sail the narrow strait between the Scylla of professional contempt and the Charybdis of public befuddlement."

"Hubris. They disliked questions unless there were clear answers. They believed so much in their method that they conjured up certainty out of undeniable risk."

"Any technology that does not appear magical is insufficiently advanced."

"He watched her putting away bacon and toast. “I remember breakfasts like that.” “First Law of Thermodynamics still applies. If you eat it, and you don’t burn it off, you sit on it.” “You burn it, looks like. Exercise? “Worry. Saves time and you don’t have to shower.”"

"A particle detector that ran beautifully was either obsolete or hadn’t been designed close enough to the cutting edge of the technology."

"Engineers never liked the unexplained, whereas physicists lived for it."

"Teaching was all very fine, but research made the heart sing."

"“So he looks like a potential Mr. Right?” “No, just Mr. Right Now.”"

"The problem with the unknown was its lack of road signs."

"She felt a tingling, curiously pleasurable: her “curiosity reflex,” she had called it in high school, when she had first glimpsed the serene certainties of physics, starkly contrasting with the world’s raw hubbub."

"A damned big clue, but pointing at what? When in doubt, get some numbers."

"The desire to find something could provoke what she called “wantum mechanics,” fishing a result out of nothing but noise."

"When in enough doubt, let your subconscious work on the problem."

"Only senators and simpletons thought science took place in neatly drawn boxes."

"“Diversity” had come to mean Balkanization."

"But in the divisions among students lay a deeper strategy. The administration practiced tactics of divide-and-conquer, turning each student faction into a client, supplicants to the ever-expanding executive corps who thought of themselves as “management,” of faculty as workers and students as captive customers. In this they merely mirrored the national political style, a legacy of the Twen Cen."

"She needed some fresh illumination, all right, but not the kind that comes through the west window of a church."

"Data always overruled theory."

"“Ummm,” Alicia said, trying to be polite. “Still sounds like we’re just making this up as we go along.” “We are.” Max grinned. “Invent, then check. It’s really the only way to make progress.”"

"“Law of the universe,” she said. “The longer the menu description, the worse the food.”"

"I like Orange County, though. It’s like L.A. without caffeine."

"She was grateful for something more than smooth, meaningless phrases. Better, the man had not reverted to the hedged-in, minimize-possible-damage style. And the first of all the commandments shall be: Cover Thy Ass."

"The ship of theory could set sail on tides of mathematical grandeur and hope alone, but only data could fill its sails."

"To believe anything so far-fetched, I’d have to see a solid calculation."

"She sighed. “We’re just guessing.” “When you have a Ph. D., you call them hypotheses, not guesses.”"

"She had changed her name from the African Aleix to Alicia when she went away to college, fresh beginnings and all. Her parents had been into black roots and the rest of it when she was born, then had rapidly backed away. Her father’s political evolution had followed a trajectory away from what he termed in one of his op-ed pieces “the narcissism of minor differences.” He had approved her abandoning the Africa-nodding of Aleix, remarking only that his thinking in those days had been mere mulling over food and folktales. She had been surprised when he wrote a series of columns on his emergence, his recovery from her mother’s death in an auto accident, and one entirely about her. This was on his long march abandoning, in his phrase, “obligatory blackitude,” so he had folded it into a thesis about the hollowness of hauling out costumes and traditional foods from lands you had never even visited. He had taken a stand against a black group insisting on carrying their “cultural weapons” to political rallies, on grounds that they stood for a precious cultural inheritance which should be beyond criticism. Tom Butterworth (“Uncle Tom” to his enemies, of course) then argued that a ban on spears was scarcely an attack on their culture, since none of them knew much more about real spears than which was the business end."

"Information wants to be free—remember that old saw? Some truth to it, only it’s backwards. This isn’t an information economy—we’re drowning in that—it’s an attention economy. That’s what everybody’s vying for."

"Indeed, she had tried to follow books and films about science, but they featured rugged, style-conscious folk who transacted their work in ornate bars, atmospheric dens thickly mired in a high-contrast noir underworld future where bizarre ornamentation passed for any sense of newness. She had never known anybody who could design an experiment or do a calculation on table napkins, sipping hip drinks while guitar riffs wailed in the smoky background, but in movies and TV this was standard, apparently to make matters more interesting to a weary public with the attention span of a commercial. Scientists were either aggressively hip, often clad in tight leather, or else pitiful, hopeless nerds, obsessional neurotics nobody would trust for a moment with the discoveries they had, quite implausibly, ushered into the world while anxiously trying to get laid."

"Ours is not to reason why, ours is to measure and report—the experimenter’s credo."

"Her eyes flipped down through the usual scandal, gossip, and politics, noting that there didn’t seem to be much difference between them anymore."

"Orange County, with its signature long lines of tall palm trees, was working toward being “max-frilled,” as the slang had it, but at least it didn’t have the touches of L.A. The post office didn’t offer valet parking yet. On rainy days parking tickets weren’t slipped inside protective envelopes, as in Beverly Hills. There were no water bars, with fifty chilled varieties at two bucks a glass, with no ice because it would erase the regional subtleties. And when you called the police department and got put on hold, no classical music played."

"Outside the Sea Lounge were ranks of motorcycles, mostly Harleys. Through the open windows she could see a jammed crowd raising beer glasses to the monotonous thump of the live band. Being Harley guys, they were of course rebels, rugged lone wolves, individual spirits, as was obvious because they were all wearing the same jackets and jeans, bandannas and sunglasses, big brass belt buckles and tattoos, probably even the same underwear."

"Inside, the place had enough bare concrete and ribbed ducts and stark lighting to be a surrealist theme bar. Very hip but still just another joint where luncheon was lunch for six bucks extra."

"Prolonged exposure to journalists made her distrust any news report; they got matters wrong so casually, even the simple ones."

"But these were mere passing irritants. Deeper were the systemic troubles. She stressed the many unknowns; the media wanted sharp answers to huge questions, preferably in a compact one-liner. She tried to emphasize the progressive questioning of her method and how all answers were provisional, awaiting confirmation; reporters liked zippy adventure and exciting guesses with, of course, striking visuals in primary colors."

"The barely awake public, trained to the attention span of a commercial, thought that science had two children: either consumer yummies, served up by the handmaiden of technology, or else awesome wonders like the beauties of astronomy. The unsettling side they largely ignored, unless for the momentary shock value of, say, swollen insects doing disgusting things. But the root promise of science was of a world unshaped by humans. The expanses of time and space that stretched out from the human community were terrifying, and most avoided even thinking of them."

"As a political commentator of the time put it, most real-world people she knew thought of Washington, D.C., as a whorehouse where every four years ordinary folk got to elect a new piano player."

"That mood had persisted when she finally got home and, unable to sleep, watched some TV. It was as usual, a cacophony, which combined with the other audio media gave a disposable pop culture that made every moment but the present seem quaint, bloodless, dead."

"Thing about crazies is, they’re crazy. You can’t even understand them in retrospect."

"Indeed, high-blown rhetoric plus uncheckable consequences were the two sure signatures of the crank."

"One of the better aspects of aging was that she no longer practiced dragging on cigarettes before the mirror, striving to get the right dissipated look, or tried on sunglasses until she found the kind the latest hip singer wore. Had she really worn those mirrorshades? Perfect holdovers from the Me Decade, because they let the viewer watch himself."

"Given a choice between existential despair and rapt religious fervor, her crowd chose marijuana."

"Well, this was what dads were for: saying the unsayable when you needed it."

"All the way up through the academic world she had spent a lot of energy fending off the blandly patronizing efforts to enter her in what she termed the Oppression Sweepstakes. Now that she had done something worth noting, blackness attached itself to her like a lamprey."

"“Sure,” Max said offhand, “there are plenty of archbishops wringing their hands, mumbling philosophers and New Age gab pouring out in the media, but so what?” She laughed. He said New Age as one word, “newage,” rhyming with “sewage.”"

"There were the usual anxieties, starkly revealing the uneasiness that ordinary intellectuals had with science."

"Physicists had abandoned God long ago and hoped that firing repeated questions at nature would get to the truth. What scientists really believed in was that the think-check-think-again style of scientific method would yield some species of Truth."

"He whispered, “Honey, it’s good ol’ love makes the world go round.” “Actually, it’s inertia.”"

"Women lurching around on heels they couldn’t manage (“sexy evening columns” as Frederick’s termed them)—further proof yet again that money can’t buy a clue."

"Einstein said that the only incomprehensible thing about the universe was that it was comprehensible. But resorting to God forgets what biology says—that our minds came out of the physical world, y’know, through evolution of early brain stems and neural systems to higher levels of complexity."

"“Boy, do I hate these holier-than-thou types.” “Clerics.” “Anybody who tries to hem science in, tell it what it can and cannot do. Boundaries are best defined by pushing against them. Expanding our horizons, our sense of wonder.” She smiled. “There’s nothing holier than wow!?”"

"Science’s success did not need a God to explain it; the world was enough."

"Minds embodies in strange shapes would still find themselves sharpened against evolution’s ceaseless whetstone. What challenges would they face? In the end the universe as a whole was life’s ultimate opponent."

"Government doesn’t often move quickly, but when they do, it’s like an elephant stampede."

"To peer through the quick stubble of mathematics and see the wonders lurking behind was to momentarily live in the infinite, beyond the press of the ordinary world where everyone else dwelled in ignorance."

"“I’ll be thinking of you as they roll me into a grave marked ‘Nobody Special.’”"

"She had long ago stopped counting how many times the 0.38 g of Mars had helped them through crucial moments. It had proved the only useful aspect of the planet."

"Whole world is sitting on ass, watching glorious Twenty-first century on TV."

"That’s how business works. There’s always somebody coming in on your blind side."

"All the astronauts were easy on the eyes. No coincidence. NASA didn’t train people the public wouldn’t want to watch."

"“It was just good luck, last minute luck.” “Your ‘luck’ was mostly sweat and intuition.”"

"That’s absurd. This is real life, not some tabloid fantasy."

"“Viktor! Don’t tell me you cheated! A gentleman doesn’t cheat at cards.” “Am captain, not gentleman.”"

"Media bloomed with florid discussions between completely uninformed people about every detail imaginable."

"Science was a systematic way to avoid fooling yourself, after all."

"Exercise erased cares."

"After weeks of indoor work it actually felt good to be doing something—clean, direct, muscles and mind."

"Not sure. When don’t know, do experiment."

"He’s an order of magnitude better than mere diplomats. He’s a conniver."

"Shanna put on the last movement of Beethoven’s Fifth and turned up the gain. Ludwig von Cornball, they had called him back at Moonbase One. Hipitude: post-postmodern irony. All because she played ol’ Ludwig so much—but who was more appropriate? What spirit better expressed the grandeur of an expedition to the edge of the solar system?"

"Puzzled frowns in the audience. Science reporters they might be, but high school chemistry was going a bit too deep for most."

"Nobody out here was going to find an alternative here to Earth’s tiresome clash of selfish individualisms and stifling collectivisms."

"She had always admired the way bureaucracies spontaneously produced leaden prose, blandly sliding from the mouths of people who absolutely believed everything they said."

"“Quite patently artificial,” she said. “Looks like it to me, and I’m just a physicist.” “I thought you were an engineer-pilot.” “Hey, physicists can do anything.” “Um. So they think. But not biology…”"

"“I think,” Jordin said mildly, “a professional biologist would label that aggressive behavior.”"

"Would an alien outsider judge America’s performance by My Lai and Wounded Knee or by Lincoln and Jefferson?"

"Definitions, her grandmother once said, had to be like a fat man’s belt—big enough to cover the subject but elastic enough to allow for change."

"Always keep your words soft and sweet, just in case you have to eat them."

"Anyway, the Shanna woman was abrasive, self-obsessed, smug—and those were her good points. Julia suspected that in a pinch the woman might also be careless, the one sin reality never forgave."

"There was more known, but always more to be known. Yes, she thought, and the unknown can masquerade as the unknowable."

"They had a legend about a Chemical pinned to a piece of dead matter and allowed to die that way—Diminished to extinction! Apparently a commonplace among Chemicals. Yet after this fearsome loss, the identity emerged from its full subtraction—to claim life again. Such a desperate story! Elementary knowledge tells us that such things do not happen, of course."

"“Why paired?” Viktor asked. “Have two sexes?” “Hard to imagine how electromagnetic creatures could,” Mary Kay said. Viktor grinned. “Lack of imagination is not an argument. Especially lately.”"

"Better be a bit more diplomatic. Translation: cover your scientific ass."

"None of the above. That’s often the right answer, and bugger the exams."

"The evolutionary routes are many, she knew, wending through the howling wilderness of the maladaptive, on to their severely narrowed destinations. Biology abounded with convergent examples, destinations arrived at along very different paths. Fruiting bodies of slime molds and myxobacteria alike evolved multicelled advances. Warmbloodedness came forth several times, as did live birth and even penile tumescence. The eyes did indeed have it—as seen in the camera-like eyes of vertebrates and octopi, and the similar tiny preceptors of worms and jellyfish. Nature invented over and over again the mechanisms used by diverse organisms to hear, smell, echolocate, sense the prickle of electric and magnetic fields."

"But then, growing up was not supposed to be easy. One Mom remarked offhandedly, “It’s the toughest work you’ll ever do.”"

"Naturals felt best in groups of a hundred or so, and better if only a few dozen were involved. Hunting parties had been about that size, for the long-extinct big game. Many important institutions were of the same rough scale: the ancient village, governing councils of nations, commanding elites of vast armies, teams playing games, orchestras, family fests. All human enterprises that worked were of that size, and nearly everything that failed was not."

"In his view, the true deep human fantasy was the conviction of safety. Men believed their women were devoted; wives felt that their men were dependable. Both ignored contrary evidence."

"From birth it had integrated each experience with its innate sense of balance and appropriate scale—indeed, this was the sole purpose of its conscious being."

"For her it was a slippery descent into a labyrinth where twin urges fought, revenge versus survival. These two instincts, already ancient before the first hominid walked, rarely married with any security. Yet if she did not feel the pinch of their competition, she would not be, by her own judgment, a true human."

"“You humans have emotions,” Seeker said slowly, “but more often emotions have you.”"

"They all lived as ants in the shadow of mountains of millennia, and time’s sheer mass shaded every word."

"History held counterexamples to any facile rule."

"Good food was like sex, one of life’s blessings, but they both lost their edge when talked about too much."

"You need friends to keep you on your feet, and enemies to keep you on your toes."

"In any case, caution outweighed theory, as mice knew about elephants."

"“How can you shrug off history?”… “By studied neglect.”"

"Nothing is eternal—including prisons."

"Individual recollections of the past are easily shaped by others. After a while they need have little bearing on the once-lived events."

"The intellectual breeds of humans think in terms of abstractions. But most people have emotions and think they are having ideas."

"Seeker laughed. “You are so—well, human. You always think you are the ultimate.” “And…we’re not.” Seeker inspected the ceiling. “It seems unlikely.”"

"Uncompromising zeal doesn’t look in the mirror much."

"Curious, how any tool properly made acquires a beauty."

"While a gigantic amount has been written or spoken, culture in the end is the fraction that gets remembered."

"Propaganda of sufficient age became art."

"Great error, seen up close, can look like true greatness."

"Evolution was still at work, pruning the failures from the gene pool with unblinking patience."

"Weeds sprouted in spaces where once-important people had proclaimed that their presumptions were imperishable."

"“So many people, close-packed.” “Your kind apparently enjoys the crowding.” “I…I can sort of see why it might be exciting. Like a never-ending party.” Speaker grimaced. “Just the sort of horror I imagined, yes.”"

"Nature’s nature was change. It was not a museum."

"To us, most human morality is carefully thought-through self-congratulation."

"When you know nothing, you are free to hope."

"“The price of such seeing will be death,” Seeker said quietly. She blinked. “We’ve done fine so far.” “A numerical series can have many terms yet be finite.”"

"Quantum uncertainty, chaos—these forever screen precise knowledge of the future from our eyes."

"An animal that liked abstractions? Maybe that wasn’t all that bad a definition of being human."

"“He was guilty of the heresy of humanism.” “How can that be heresy?” “The narcissistic devotion to things human? ‘Man is the measure of all things?’ Easily.”"

"The way of truth is along the path of intellectual sincerity."

"I have no health for a soldier, and as I have no expectation of serving my country in that way, I am spending my time in the old trifling manner, and am so taken with optics, that I do not know whether, if the enemy should invade this part of the country, as Archimedes was slain while making geometrical figures on the sand, so I should die making a telescope."

"I do not design a machine which will give the ignorant in astronomy a just view of the solar system, but would rather astonish the skilful and curious observer by a most accurate correspondence between the situations and motions of our little representatives of our heavenly bodies and the situations and motions of those bodies themselves. I would have my orrery really useful by making it capable of informing us truly of the astronomical phenomena for any particular point of time, which I do not find that any orrery yet made can do."

"The direct tendency of (Astronomy) is to dilate the heart with universal benevolence, and to enlarge its views."

"See the sage Rittenhonse, with ardent eye, Lift the long tube and pierce the starry sky; Clear in his view the circling systems roll, And broader splendours gild the central pole. He marks what laws th' eccentric wand'rers bind, Copies Creation in his forming mind, And bids, beneath his hand, in semblance rise, With mimic orbs, the labours of the skies. There wond'ring crowds with raptur'd eye behold The spangled heav'ns their mystic maze unfold; While each glad sage his splendid hall shall grace, With all the spheres that cleave th' ethereal space."

"'America had not yet produced one good poet.' When we shall have existed as a people as long as the Greeks did before they produced a Homer, the Romans a Virgil, the French a Racine and Voltaire, the English a Shakespeare and Milton, should this reproach be still true, we will inquire from what unfriendly causes it has proceeded, that the other countries of Europe and quarters of the earth shall not have inscribed any name in the roll of poets. But neither has America produced 'one able mathematician, one man of genius in a single art or a single science.' In war we have produced a Washington, whose memory will be adored while liberty shall have votaries, whose name shall triumph over time, and will in future ages assume its just station among the most celebrated worthies of the world, when that wretched philosophy shall be forgotten which would have arranged him among the degeneracies of nature. In physics we have produced a Franklin, than whom no one of the present age has made more important discoveries, nor has enriched philosophy with more, or more ingenious solutions of the phenomena of nature. We have supposed Mr. Rittenhouse second to no astronomer living: that in genius he must be the first, because he is self-taught. As an artist he has exhibited as great a proof of mechanical genius as the world has ever produced. He has not indeed made a world; but he has by imitation approached nearer its Maker than any man who has lived from the creation to this day."

"Before the nineteenth century, writers on education portayed the "improvement of mind" as an activity mainly suited to gentlemen. ...both Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Rush had venerated David Rittenhouse as an example of how arduous philosophical investigation might elevate the child of humble parents. But Jefferson and Rush tagged Rittenhouse as a genius, and hence untypical, and each employed Rittenhouse as ammunition in a debate among educated gentlemen. Jefferson invoked Rittenhouse in his Notes on the State of Virginia, a book he wrote to disabuse French philosophes of the notion that all specied degenerated in the New World; Rush used his eulogy of Rittenhouse before the select audience of the American Philosophical Society to ridicule colleges for requiring students to learn the ancient languages."

"The year 1775 opened with a project intended to bring the abilities of Rittenhouse more effectually into the service of science. The Philosophical Society addressed the colonial legislature of Pennsylvania, praying it to establish a public observatory, and commit it to the care of Rittenhouse. Had the circumstances of the times permitted this project to be carried into effect, it would have enabled him to occupy a great space in the history of astronomy. He had already shown himself the equal, in point of learning and skill as an observer, to any practical astronomer then living; nothing was wanting to make him rank with the Flamsteads, the Halleys, and the Maskelynes, but that he should be permitted to devote his whole mind to this pursuit, and be furnished with those instruments and accommodations, for which no private fortune will suffice. Other men might have been found as well, nay, better qualified for the political pursuits and public offices in which it became his fate to spend the rest of his life; but America has never yet produced any individual who has manifested so great a capacity for extending the domain of practical astronomy. To arrange the details of a disorganized and depreciating currency, to collect and disburse a scanty and ill-paid revenue, were thereafter to be the pursuits of our philosopher; and he was to expend upon the estimates and returns of the tax-gatherer those powers of mind which were capable of grasping, and that mechanical skill which sufficed to imitate, the vast mechanism of the universe."

"It was during the residence of our ingenious philosopher with his father in the country that he made himself master of Sir Isaac Newton's Principia, which he read in the English translation of Mr. Motte. It was here, likewise, he became acquainted with the science of fluxions; of which sublime invention he believed himself, for a while, to be the author, nor did he know for some years afterwards that a contest had been carried on between Sir Isaac Newton and Leibnitz for the honor of the great and useful discovery. What a mind was here! Without literary friends or society, and with but two or three books, he became, before he had reached his four and twentieth year, the rival of two of the greatest mathematicians in Europe."

"Among the books he inherited from his uncle was an English translation of the "Principia" of Newton. Such was the progress which he made in mathematical knowledge, although now destitute of any aid, that he was enabled to accomplish the perusal of this work, for the proper understanding of which so much acquaintance with geometry and algebra is necessary, before he had attained his nineteenth year. Newton, as is well known, from deference to the practice of the ancient philosophers, adopts in this work the synthetic method of demonstration, and gives no clue to the analytic process by which the truth of his propositions was first discovered by him. Unlike the English followers of this distinguished philosopher, who contented themselves, for a time, with following implicitly in the path of geometric demonstration, which he had thus pointed out, Rittenhouse applied himself to search for an instrument, which might be applied to the purpose of similar discoveries, and in his researches attained the principles of the method of fluxions. So ignorant was he of the progress which this calculus had made, and of the discussions in relation to its invention and improvement, that he for a time considered it as a new discovery of his own. In this impression, however, he could not have long continued; as he made, in his nineteenth year, an acquaintance who was well qualified to set him right in this important point."

"The most noted mathematician and astronomer of early times [in the U.S.] was not a professor in a college, nor had he been trained within college walls. We have reference to David Rittonhouse."

"His invention, whatever it may have been, was not of sufficient importance to deserve the name of an "invention of fluxions." If Rittenhouse actually made an invention of such transcending magnitude before the age of twenty, and at a time when he had hardly begun his scientific studies, how is it that he made not the slightest approach to any similar discovery during the forty-four years of his maturer life? Though always a passionate lover of scientific pursuits, he made no original contributions whatever to the science of pure mathematics. Science is indebteded to him chiefly for his orreries and the observations of the transit of Venus. ...the alleged invention of fluxions was little more than a "rumor set afloat by idle gossip." It serves to show us, however, in what unbounded admiration he was held by his countrymen."

"As a mechanic, Rittenhouse became celebrated for the extreme exactness and finish of his workmanship. Especially celebrated were his chronometer clocks. It was while thus engaged in the manufacture of clocks that he planned and executed an instrument which brought into play both his mechanical and mathematical skill. ...the orrery. It was, indeed, intended to be a sort of a perpetual astronomical almanac, in which the results, instead of being exhibited in tables, were to be actually exhibited to the eye. His orrery greatly exceeded all others in precision. It attracted very general attention among well informed persons... There arose a lively competition between different colleges in this country for the possession of this orrery."

"Only two transits of Venus had been observed before his time, and of these, the first, in 1639, had been seen by only two persons. These transits happen so seldom that there cannot be more than two in one century, and in some centuries none at all. But the transits of Venus are the best means we have for determining the parallax of the sun. ...The observations were a success and established for Rittenhonse the reputation of an exact and careful astronomer. ...During the transit Rittenhouse saw one phenomenon which escaped the notice of all other astronomers. When the planet had advanced about half of its [Venus'] diameter upon the sun, that part of the edge of the planet which was off the sun's disc appeared illuminated, so that the outline of the entire planet could be seen. But a complete circle of light around Venus would indicate that more than half of Venus is illuminated. This can happen... only when the rays of light are refracted by an atmosphere. Hence... Venus is surrounded, like the earth, by an atmosphere. But this appearance of a ring of light was not confirmed by other astronomers, and the statement of Rittenhouse excited no attention for nearly a century, until his observation was at last confirmed by other astronomers."

"If our astronomer be judged by the original contributions which, under existing adverse circumstances, he actually did make to astronomy and mathematics, then it must be admitted that he can not be placed in the foremost rank of astronomers then living. Friends will judge him by what he might have done; the world at large will judge him by what he actually accomplished. Our greatest indebtedness to Rittenhouse lies not in the original contributions he made to science, but rather in the interest which he aroused in astronomical pursuits, and in the diffusion of scientific knowledge in the New World which resulted from his efforts."

"A theory can never be proven absolutely true, therefore there is no end to scientific endeavor. A true scientific theory is always open to be disproved, and the burden of proof is continually placed on the scientist."

"My area of research is something that in all fairness has no practical usability whatsoever and the thing is I'm often asked to apologize for that. It is interesting to me that people ask 'what's the point of doing that if it's not useful?' But they never ask that, or do they very rarely ask that about art or literature or music. Those things are not gonna produce a better toaster."

"There is a maxim about the universe which I always tell my students: That which is not explicitly forbidden is guaranteed to occur."

"Now, since the time of Newton there had been a debate about whether light was a wave---that is, a traveling disturbance in some background medium---or a particle, which travels regardless of the presence of a background medium. The observation of Maxwell that electromagnetic waves must exist and that their speed was identical to that of light ended the debate: light was an electromagnetic wave."

"If you have nothing in quantum mechanics, you will always have something."

"Science simply forces us to revise what is sensible to accommodate the universe, rather than vice versa."

"The other thing people don't realise about science which differentiates it from religion is that, the most exciting thing about being a scientist is not knowing and being wrong. Because that means there is a lot left to learn."

"It is a shame when nonsense can substitute for fact with impunity."

"We only see shadows of reality. We shouldn't expect those shadows to behave sensibly."

"... we're here because of an environmental accident if there is a multiverse and if the laws of physics are different in the different regions ..."

"The amazing thing is that every atom in your body came from a star that exploded, and the atoms in your left hand probably came from a different star than your right hand. It really is the most poetic thing I know about physics. You are all stardust. You couldn’t be here if stars hadn’t exploded because the elements—the carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, iron, all the things that matter for evolution—weren’t created at the beginning of time. They were created in the nuclear furnaces of stars, and the only way they could get... into your body is if these stars were kind enough to explode. So, forget Jesus. The stars died so that you could be here today."

"Theorists always know the answer. They're just sometimes right."

"Science is empirical: knowing the answer is nothing. Testing your knowledge means everything."

"The Universe must be flat. Why? Well, there is two reasons. There's the one I normally say, which is: it's the only mathematically beautiful universe. Which is true, but there's another reason I don't usually... talk about but I'll talk about here. It turns out that in a flat universe the total energy of the universe is precisely zero because gravity can have negative energy. So the negative energy of gravity balances out the positive energy of matter. What's so beautiful about a universe with total energy zero? Well, only such a universe can begin from nothing, and that is remarkable because the laws of physics allow a universe to begin from nothing. You don't need a Deity. You have nothing: zero total energy, and quantum fluctuations can produce a universe. So, if the Universe isn't flat we're worried, because then you've got energy at... the very beginning of Time."

"What's going to happen in the far future? Remember a hundred years ago we thought we lived into static eternal Universe. What will the future bring? The amazing thing is, for civilizations that live in a far future, what will they see? Well, the Universe is accelerating. That means all the distant galaxies are getting carried away from us, and eventually they'll move away from us faster than the speed of light. It's allowed in General relativity. They will disappear. The longer we wait, the less we will see. In a hundred billion years any observers evolving on stars around [us]... and there will be stars just like our Sun in 100 billion years. Any observers and civilizations... evolving around those stars will see nothing except for our Galaxy, which is exactly the picture they had in 1915. All evidence of the Hubble expansion will disappear. Why? Because we won't see other galaxies moving apart from us. So they will have no evidence, in fact, of Big Bang. They won't see the Hubble expansion. They won't even know about dark energy, and I won't go into that. They won't know about the cosmic microwave background - it will disappear too. It will redshift away, and it turns out for fancy reasons: there is a plasma in our Galaxy and when the Universe is 50 times its present age the microwave background won't able to propagate in our Galaxy. All evidence of the Big Bang will have disappeared, and those scientists will discover quantum mechanics, discover relativity, discover evolution, discover all the basic principles of science that we understand today, use the best observations they can do with the best telescopes they will build and they will derive a picture of the Universe which is completely wrong. They will derive a picture of the Universe as being one Galaxy surrounded by empty space that's static and eternal. Falsifiable science will produce the wrong answer. In fact, I want to end with the good news. We live in a very special time, the only time we can observationally verify that we live in a very special time."

"Richard Feynman used to go up to people all the time and he'd say, "You won't believe what happened to me today. You won't believe what happened to me." And people would say "What?" And he'd say, "Absolutely nothing". Because we humans believe that everything that happens to us is special, and significant. And that—and... Carl Sagan wrote beautifully about that in Demon-Haunted World—that is much of the source of religion. OK? Everything that happens is unusual, and I expect that the likelihood that Richard and I ever would've met—if you think about all the variables, the probability that we were in the same place at the same time, ate breakfast at the same... Whatever. It's zero. Every event that happens has small probability... but it happens, and then when it happens; if it's weird, if you dream one million nights and it's nonsense, but one night you dream that your friend is gonna break his leg and the next day he breaks his arm. You think, "ah." ...So the [real] thing that physics tell us about the universe is it's big, rare events happen all the time—including life—and that doesn't mean it's special."

"But what we've discovered is that, in fact... the total energy of the universe could be zero, which is a first clue that maybe it could come from nothing. ...In physics, ...once you include gravity, there's positive energy and negative energy, and our universe appears as if its total energy could be precisely zero, which is the first hint that maybe it could come from nothing. That, and the great discovery... that namely empty space, you take a region of space, get rid of all the particles and all the radiation ...so there's nothing there. That empty space weighs something, and we don't understand why."

"The energy of every galaxy—all the galaxies are moving away from us at, Hubble discovered that in 1929... If you measure their speed and then you work our the attraction the two add up to precisely zero. An amazing discovery that confirms this notion that, not only is the universe flat and mathematically beautiful, but begins to give us an inkling that maybe, maybe, maybe we could come from nothing."

"[O]ne of the great things about science is it forces us to refine our idea of what's common sense. It forces us to have our beliefs conform to the evidence of reality rather than the other way around. The universe may not be like we'd like it to be, but it doesn't really care."

"Now some people say, "Well, if there's virtual particles there it's really not nothing," but there are no real particles. You try and measure things there, there's nothing, but those virtual particles can give space energy and in fact we've discovered to our great surprise—it won the Nobel prize two years ago—that empty space has energy, and if you put energy in empty space, then it's really strange because it's not like the normal energy... it's not gravitationally attractive, it's actually repulsive, and we've discovered the expansion of the universe is not slowing down like any sensible universe should do. It's actually speeding up... because it's dominated by the energy of empty space."

"[W]hen you apply quantum mechanics to gravity, then even space itself can pop into existence from nothing. Space and time can spontaneously pop into existence... Whole universes can pop into existence and most of them will disappear in a time scale so short you wouldn't know about it. The ones that can survive for a long time have zero total energy..."

"[Y]ou... may say, "Well look, we've got no space, no time, no particles, no radiation. That's a pretty good approximation of nothing, but there's still the laws. Who created the laws? And... what we've discovered... in the last ten years or so, and... this is speculative, but it's based on everything we know of in particle physics... It's quite reasonable to suspect that even the laws themselves came into existence when our universe came into existence... There could be many different universes and in each one of them the laws of physics are different. They spontaneously arise when the universe arises."

"[W]hy presumes purpose... But what if there isn't purpose? Whenever we say why we really mean how."

"[W]e can weigh systems of galaxies. The largest bound objects in the universe are called clusters of galaxies. They're maybe ten million light years across. ...We weigh them using gravity because Einstein told us that mass curves space, and we can... use those large clusters as lenses—if there's a light source behind a cluster the light from it can come around and be lensed... and we've weighed these systems and we've found that there's only 30% of the mass needed to make a flat universe... Theorists like me knew that the universe was flat, because it's the only mathematically beautiful universe... but here these observers kept coming up with only 30% of the stuff needed... But then, what we've discovered... is that the universe actually is flat and the rest of the 70% of the energy of the flat universe comes from the energy of nothing."

"There's a loophole if you weigh galaxies and clusters because you're weighing the total amount of energy around galaxies. What if there's energy where galaxies aren't? What is where galaxies aren't? Nothing."

"Only by doing the best we can with the very best that an era offers, do we find the way to do better in the future."

"Self-study, in a sense of learning by yourself without anybody teaching you anything, has an enormous value."

"I guess the other thing I find a little bit on the downside is that all the papers can now be downloaded off the web. That bothers me a little because I think in the old days, when you picked up the journal, you kind of looked at everything on the back of it, the titles, and there were things you didn’t know that much about or that you had a faint connection with, and maybe you looked at the paper; maybe you read the abstract at least. Nowadays, you just dial up what you’re interested in; you don’t see any of the rest of the literature. I do worry over this kind of compartmentalization of astronomy, which I think has gotten to be a bit out of hand..."

"It has long been though that the sun is a constant star of regular and repeatable behavior. Measurements of the radiative output, or solar constant, seem to justify the first assumption, and the record of periodicity in sunspot numbers is taken as evidence of the second. Both records, however, sample only the most recent history of the sun."

"I have reexamined the contemporary reports and new evidence which has come to light since Maunder's time and conclude that this 70-year period was indeed a time when solar activity all but stopped. This behavior is wholly unlike the modern behavior of the sun which we have come to accept as normal, and the consequences for solar and terrestrial physics seem to me profound."

"The reality of the 'Maunder Minimum' and its implications of basic solar change may be but one more defeat in our long and losing battle to keep the sun perfect, or, if not perfect, constant, and if inconstant, regular. Why we think that sun should be any of these when other stars are not is more a question for social than for physical science."

"“I am most indebted to E N Parker for calling my attention to Maunder's papers, and for personal encouragement in all the work reported here.”"

"It would seem that Maunder and Sporer were right and that most of the rest of us have been wrong. As is often the case in the onrush of modern science, we had too quickly forgotten the past, forgotten the less-than-perfect pedigree of the sunspot cycle and the fact that it too once came as a surprise. We had adopted a kind of solar uniformitarianism, contending that the modern behavior of the sun represented the normal behavior of the sun over a much longer span of time."

"The Maunder minimum corresponds almost precisely with the coldest excursion of the 'little ice age', a period of unusual cold in Europe from the 16th century through the early 19th century. In the coldest extremes of that period the average temperature was about one degree Celsius colder than it is now, according to the British climatologist Hubert H. Lamb. In that period the Alpine glaciers advanced farther than they had since the last major glaciation 15,000 years ago. In that period too the Norse colony in southwestern Greenland perished to a man, cut off from the rest of the world by pack ice that year after year failed to thaw."

"We had adopted a kind of solar uniformitarianism," solar physicist John (Jack) Eddy suggested in retrospect. "As people and as scientists we have always wanted the Sun to be better than other stars and better than it really is."

"Regarding the claims of Maunder and Sporer: "I started by trying to make it go away, mostly because of a prejudice about sun-weather relationships, and what I thought was true about the sun. In time I realized that there was a more profound and philosophical message in the Maunder Minimum: that people want the Sun to be more constant and regular than perhaps it is.""

"I had been taught that while the Sun indeed affects the upper and outer atmosphere of the Earth, purported connections with the troposphere and weather and climate were uniformly wacky and to be distrusted. I still believe that to some extent, for there is a hypnotism about cycles that seems to attract people. It draws all kinds of creatures out of the woodwork. The claims that were made for associations between weather events and the Sun I thought were pretty preposterous. One of those that turned up was this notion that Gene told me about. About the work of Walter Maunder 100 years before, when he had thought that there was a prolonged period of time in the 1600s when the Sun wasn’t so active."

"But my reasons for taking this less-traveled road were many. One is the inevitable thrill of discovery when you wander into new areas. More importantly, you also avoid the danger of being too comfortable in too narrow a niche. I truly believe the sayings that there is no hope for the satisfied man and that without fear there is no learning. Entering a new field with a degree in another is not unlike Lewis and Clark walking into the camp of the Mandans. You are not one of them. They distrust you. Your degree means nothing and your name is not recognized. You have to learn it all from scratch, earn their respect, and learn a lot on your own. But I also think that many of the most significant discoveries in science will be found not in but between the rigid boundaries of the disciplines: the terra incognita where much remains to be learned. It's not a place that's hidebound by practice and ritual. I have always tried to keep moving between fields of study and it shows up, I think, in my vitae."

"When we have observed the Sun most intensively, its behavior may have been unusually regular and benign."

"Were God to give us, at last, the cable, or patch-cord that links the Sun to the Climate System it would have on the solar end a banana plug, and on the other, where it hooks into the Earth—in ways we don’t yet know—a Hydra-like tangle of multiple 24-pin parallel computer connectors. It is surely at this end of the problem where the greatest challenges lie."

"Science is competitive, aggressive, demanding. It is also imaginative, inspiring, uplifting."

"We have peered into a new world and have seen that it is more mysterious and more complex than we had imagined. Still more mysteries of the universe remain hidden. Their discovery awaits the adventurous scientists of the future. I like it this way."

"There is one alternative to dark matter, and that is the assumption that Newton's laws don't hold over distances as great as galaxies. But we know that Newton's laws hold over a very large domain. And virtually one hundred percent of the physics and astronomy community believes that there is matter in the universe that does not radiate."

"Science progresses best when observations force us to alter our preconceptions."

"It is well known that I am available twenty-four hours a day to women astronomers."

"How stars move tell us that most matter in the universe is dark. When we see stars in the sky, we're only seeing five or 10 percent of the matter that there is in the universe."

"I'm not a theologian, and I must say honestly that Vatican astronomers' views [on astronomy] are entirely in accord with ours. I'm not aware of any Church positions that contradict modern science. In my own life, my science and my religion are separate. I'm Jewish, and so religion to me is a kind of moral code and a kind of history. I try to do my science in a moral way, and, I believe that, ideally, science should be looked upon as something that helps us understand our role in the universe."

"I live and work with three basic assumptions, 1) There is no problem in science that can be solved by a man that cannot be solved by a woman. 2) Worldwide, half of all brains are in women. 3) We all need permission to do science, but, for reasons that are deeply ingrained in history, this permission is more often given to men than to women."

"Each one of you can change the world, for you are made of star stuff, and you are connected to the universe."

"Rubin, in collaboration with Kent Ford, became the key figure in extending rotation curves based on optical-wavelength studies to large galactic radii, where their prevalent flatness dovetailed neatly with results from radio-wavelength observations. Rubin’s life story is one of perseverance in the face of occupational and societal obstacles. ... Rubin’s story illustrates the resistance of the scientific community to altering an established paradigm—that light is the essential gauge of mass in the universe."

"To my mind, what Vera discovered is both more specific and more profound than the dark matter paradigm it helped to create. What she discovered observationally is that rotation curves are very nearly flat, and continue to be so to indefinitely large radius. Over and over again, for every galaxy in the sky. It is a law of nature for galaxies, akin to Kepler’s laws for planets. Dark matter is an inference, a subsidiary result. It is just one possible interpretation, a subset of amazing and seemingly unlikely possibilities opened up by her discovery."

"I think of the time that Vera and I were spending in cold telescope domes, the wind blowing, coyotes howling off on the mesa, we would have been happy to have a warm room to sit in, whether it was in Flagstaff or a lab back home."

"It is the great glory of the quest for human knowledge that, while making some small contribution to that quest, we can also continue to learn and to take pleasure in learning."

"… one of the most detrimental (and least discussed) effects of the crisis in science education in the world today is that we are creating a population increasingly unable to think skeptically about a wide range of issues."

"I believe that an understanding of our place in the wider universe and the methods of science are part of the birthright of everyone living on our planet."

"I’m tired of ignorance held up as inspiration, where vicious anti-intellectualism is considered a positive trait, and where uninformed opinion is displayed as fact."

"It’s amazing to me that not only can we put a probe around Saturn and get images of its moons, but our math and physics are so freaking accurate we can say, "Hey, you know what? On this date at this time if we turn Cassini that way we’ll see a moon over 2 million kilometers away pass in front of another one nearly 3 million kilometers away."Every morning, I have a 50/50 chance of finding my keys. That kinda puts things in perspective."

"However, science isn't just about showing when you're right; it's also about showing when you're wrong."

"If a little kid ever asks you just why the sky is blue, you look him or her right in the eye and say, "It's because of quantum effects involving Rayleigh scattering combined with a lack of violet photon receptors in our retinae.""

"Just like people, stars can be important without being terribly bright."

"Other job markets may lay claim to the title, but astronomy is actually the world's oldest profession."

"They say that even the brightest star won't shine forever. But in fact, the brightest star would live the shortest amount of time. Feel free to extract whatever life lesson you want from that."

"What I have discovered in 20 years of studying the universe, from here to there to everywhere, is that the universe is complicated, and when things happen, it is almost never like ‘A happened and therefore B’. No, A happened and therefore B, C, D and E, but then there is this thing F, and that had a 10% effect, and that prompted G to go back and tip over A, and it is always like this – everything is interconnected. And so a lot of these far-right fundamentalist religion people, and a lot of these people who are anti-global warming, anti-evolution, anti-science, what they do is they take advantage of the fact that things are complicated, and their lives are based on things being simple – if we do this, then this will happen – if we invade Iraq, we will be treated as liberators, if we pray, then good things will happen, and this stuff is wrong. But we have a culture where people are brought up to believe in simplicity, and if A then B. And so when you point out that scientists say the earth is warming, but we had a really devastating winter this year, then these people will say “oh, obviously global warming is wrong”. No, global warming can cause worse winters locally. It’s complicated. But people don’t want to hear “it’s complicated”, and boy, the conspiracy theorists and anti-scientists take full advantage of that."

"A person not familiar with all of the special knowledge about a particular instrument should not try to draw too many conclusions from printed data. Such data typically contains certain assumptions about the equipment not necessarily known to outsiders."

"Since all of the possibilities of a terrestrial origin have been either ruled out or seem improbable, and since the possibility of an extraterrestrial origin has not been able to be ruled out, I must conclude that an ETI (ExtraTerrestrial Intelligence) might have sent the signal that we received as the Wow! source. Of course, being a scientist, I await the reception of additional signals like the Wow! source that are able to be received and analyzed by many observatories. Thus, I must state that the origin of the Wow! signal is still an open question for me. There is simply too little data to draw many conclusions. In other words, as I stated above, I choose not to "draw vast conclusions from 'half-vast' data"."

"Equipped with his five senses, man explores the universe around him and calls the adventure Science."

"Science is the one human activity that is truly progressive."

"Eventually, we reach the utmost limits of our telescopes. There, we measure shadows and search among ghostly errors of measurement for landmarks that are scarcely more substantial."

"The history of astronomy is a history of receding horizons."

"...there must be no favored location in the universe, no center, no boundary; all must see the universe alike. And, in order to ensure this situation, the cosmologist postulates spatial isotropy and spatial homogeneity."

"The whole thing is so much bigger than I am, and I can't understand it, so I just trust myself to it; and forget about it."

"We do not know why we are born into the world, but we can try to find out what sort of a world it is — at least in its physical aspects."

"She deserved the Nobel Prize for her work."

"I chucked the law for astronomy, and I knew that even if I were second-rate or third-rate, it was astronomy that mattered."

"If the apparent magnitudes of the nebulae are corrected merely for the effect of the red-shift in diminishing the energy of their observed light, we have seen that Hubble claims that the system is uniformly spread out in space. If, however, the nebulae are receding, an additional dimming factor arises, and the corresponding correction for distance when incorporated in the calculation destroys the homogeneity. Instead, the number of nebulae per unit volume of space now appears to increase as we recede towards the confines of the visible universe. Rightly or wrongly, Hubble maintains that such a picture would imply that we were in a privileged position in the universe, being in the region lease densely populated with nebulae. On these, and other grounds, he is inclined, therefore, to reject the Doppler-interpretation of the red-shifts and to regard the nebulae as stationary."

"I may be a minority of one in advocating that one should NOT separate science and politics—partly because I am old enough to remember the Weimar Republic before 1934..."

"The earth’s atmosphere is an imperfect window on the universe. Electromagnetic waves in the optical part of the spectrum (that is waves longer than X rays and shorter than radio waves) penetrate to the surface of the earth only in a few narrow spectral bands The widest of the transmitted bands corresponds roughly to the colors of visible light waves in the flanking ultraviolet and infrared regions of the optical spectrum are almost totally absorbed by the atmosphere. In addition atmospheric turbulence blurs the images of celestial objects even when they are viewed through the most powerful ground-based telescopes in an article promoting the construction of the Hubble Space Telescope."

"Every time we get slapped down, we can say, Thank you Mother Nature, because it means we're about to learn something important."

"We often frame our understanding of what the space telescope will do in terms of what we expect to find, and actually it would be terribly anticlimactic if in fact we find what we expect to find. … The most important discoveries will provide answers to questions that we do not yet know how to ask and will concern objects we have not yet imagined."

"The most important discoveries will provide answers to questions that we do not yet know how to ask and will concern objects that we can not yet imagine."

"John Bahcall, an astronomer on the Institute of Advanced Study faculty since 1970 likes to tell the story of his first faculty dinner when he found himself seated across from Kurt Gödel a man dedicated to logic and the clean certainties of mathematical abstraction Bahcall introduced himself and mentioned that he was a physicist Gödel replied“I don’t believe in natural science."

"Cosmology is a science which has only a few observable facts to work with."

"... the Big Bang theory is the accepted theory of cosmology. You never prove anything completely, but it’s the accepted theory of cosmology. And we continue on, in my group, we continue on with balloon observations, and then there’s the and now we’re getting the ready with the , who is sponsoring that. So there’s a whole sequence. What it was, was that was the opening shot and saying OK, there’s some gold to be discovered in the hills, go looking for it."

"But every day I go to work I'm making a bet that the universe is simple, symmetric, and aesthetically pleasing—a universe that we humans, with our limited perspective, will someday understand."

"We especially need imagination in science. It is not all mathematics, nor all logic, but it is somewhat beauty and poetry. There will come with the greater love of science greater love to one another. Living more nearly to Nature is living farther from the world and from its follies, but nearer to the world's people; it is to be of them, with them, and for them, and especially for their improvement. We cannot see how impartially Nature gives of her riches to all, without loving all, and helping all; and if we cannot learn through Nature's laws the certainty of spiritual truths, we can at least learn to promote spiritual growth while we are together, and live in a trusting hope of a greater growth in the future."

"The great gain would be freedom of thought. Women, more than men, are bound by tradition and authority. What the father, the brother, the doctor, and the minister have said has been received undoubtingly. Until women throw off this reverence for authority they will not develop. When they do this, when they come to truth through their investigations, when doubt leads them to discovery, the truth which they get will be theirs, and their minds will work on and on unfettered."

"I know I shall be called heterodox, and that unseen lightning flashes and unheard thunderbolts will be playing around my head, when I say that women will never be profound students in any other department except music while they give four hours a day to the practice of music. I should by all means encourage every woman who is born with musical gifts to study music; but study it as a science and an art, and not as an accomplishment; and to every woman who is not musical, I should say, 'Don't study it at all;' you cannot afford four hours a day, out of some years of your life, just to be agreeable in company upon possible occasions. If for four hours a day you studied, year after year, the science of language, for instance, do you suppose you would not be a linguist? Do you put the mere pleasing of some social party, and the reception of a few compliments, against the mental development of four hours a day of study of something for which you were born? When I see that girls who are required by their parents to go through with the irksome practising really become respectable performers, I wonder what four hours a day at something which they loved, and for which God designed them, would do for them. I should think that to a real scientist in music there would be something mortifying in this rush of all women into music; as there would be to me if I saw every girl learning the constellations, and then thinking she was an astronomer!"

"There is this great danger in student life. Now, we rest all upon what Socrates said, or what Copernicus taught; how can we dispute authority which has come down to us, all established, for ages? We must at least question it; we cannot accept anything as granted, beyond the first mathematical formulae. Question everything else."

"An English village could never be mistaken for an American one: the outline against the sky differs; a thatched cottage makes a very wavy line on the blue above."

"Every formula which expresses a law of nature is a hymn of praise to God."

"There is a God, and he is good, I say to myself. I try to increase my trust in this, my only article of creed."

"Study as if you were going to live forever; live as if you were going to die tomorrow."

"Eighteen centuries have passed since the Bible was finished. They have been centuries of great changes. In their course the world has been wrought over into newness at almost every point. But, to-day, the text of the Scriptures, after copyings almost innumerable and after having been tossed about through ages of ignorance and tumult, is found by exhaustive criticism to be unaltered in every important particular — there being not a single doctrine, nor duty, nor fact of any grade, that is brought into question by variations of readings — a fact that stands alone in the history of such ancient literature."

"Dying visions of angels and Christ and God and heaven are confined to credibly good men. Why do not bad men have such visions? They die of all sorts of diseases; they have nervous temperaments; they even have creeds and hopes about the future which they cling to with very great tenacity; why do not they rejoice in some such glorious illusions when they go out of the world?"

"If we would gain light either on the theory or the practice of religion: i. We must sincerely desire the light. 2. We must use the light we already have. 3. We must patiently seek light in the double way of prayer and rational inquiry. Never, as long as the world stands, will any religiously benighted soul thus patiently desire and pray and labor for the break of day, without at last seeing the eyelids of the morn unsealed, and the painfully dusky east gradually redden into the sun."

"I know of no condition worse than that of the man who has little or no light on the supreme religious questions, and who at the same time is making no effort to come to the light."

"At the conscious approach of death, faith in the Biblical Religion, with its God and Christ and written Revelation, never weakens, but almost or quite always strengthens, and very often advances to a splendid assurance; while unbelief under the same circumstances never strengthens, but almost or quite always weakens and falters, and very often fails utterly."

"The wastage of the skills and talents of our capable young scientists is a disgrace to the world. The resources exist to put them all to work doing constructive things. Instead of that the substance of the earth is expanded on frivolities, on all kinds of power wasting devices and gas guzzling cars. Worst of all is the expenditure of technical expertise, energy and money on the arms race. Despite the wherewithal to wipe man off the face of the earth, ten times over, there is clamor to squander even more."

"Gaseous nebulae offer outstanding opportunities to atomic physicists, spectroscopists, plasma experts, and to observers and theoreticians alike for the study of attenuated ionized gases. These nebulae are often dusty, heated by radiation fields and by shocks. They are short-lived phenomena on the scale of a stellar lifetime, but their chemical compositions and internal kinematics may give important clues to advanced stages of stellar evolution."

"... in the late 1940s, as the new technique of radio astronomy was developed, a brand new window was opened on the universe. Through this window the outer world looked strangely different. Copious amounts of power were emitted by streams of charged particles moving with nearly the velocity of light in vast magnetized clouds in the deep recesses of space. Additional windows are now available. The infrared, the domain of heat radiation where we could see but darkly, is intensively being explored — thanks to great technological advances. Observations with satellites flown above the earth's atmosphere have wonderfully expanded our horizons. The International Ultraviolet Explorer, IRAS, and Einstein are but three examples of instruments that have revolutionized our understanding the ultraviolet, the infrared, and the X-ray regions. Ground-based radio observations, together with X-ray and gamma-ray detectors flown in satellites, have established the active field of high-energy astrophysics. The mysterious cosmic rays, long a province worked by a small band of devoted physicists, were shown to be an integral part of the expanding scene. Radio galaxies and quasars revealed powerhouses of unbelievably high wattage radiating in remote space, while pulsars made sense only in terms of incredibly dense cores of defunct stars, where the very nuclei of the atoms, themselves, were simply squeezed beyond redemption. In some instances, matter was even further crushed into black holes from which nothing, neither particle nor radiation, can ever escape."

"Yes, the universe had a beginning. Yes, the universe continues to evolve. And yes, every one of our body's atoms is traceable to the big bang and to the thermonuclear furnace within high-mass stars. We are not simply in the universe, we are part of it. We are born from it. One might even say we have been empowered by the universe to figure itself out — and we have only just begun."

"A few years ago I got a phone call from a marketing executive who wanted to light up the Moon with the logo of her company. She wanted to know how she might proceed. After slamming down the phone, I called her back and politely explained why it was a bad idea. Other corporate executives have asked me how to put into orbit mile-wide luminous banners with catchy slogans written across them, much like the skywriting or flag-dragging airplanes you see at sports events or over the ocean from a crowded beach. I always threaten to send the light police after them."

"No matter who you are, engaging in the quest to discover where and how things began tends to induce emotional fervor—as if knowing the beginning bestows upon you some form of fellowship with, or perhaps governance over, all that comes later. So what is true for life itself is no less true for the universe: knowing where you came from is no less important than knowing where you are going."

"Cosmologists have plenty of ego — how can a person not be ego-driven when it's your job to deduce what brought the universe into existence? But without data, their explanations were just tall tales. In this modern era of cosmology, each new observation, each morsel of data wields a two-edged sword: it enables cosmology to thrive on the kind of foundation that so much of the rest of science enjoys, but it also constrains theories that people thought up when there wasn't enough data to say whether they were wrong or not. No science achieves maturity without it.Let there be cosmology."

"I don't want students who could make the next major breakthrough in renewable energy sources or space travel to have been taught that anything they don't understand, and that nobody yet understands, is divinely constructed and therefore beyond their intellectual capacity. The day that happens, Americans will just sit in awe of what we don't understand, while we watch the rest of the world boldly go where no mortal has gone before."

"I know that the molecules in my body are traceable to phenomena in the cosmos."

"That makes me want to grab people on the street and say, "have you heard this?""

"People cited violation of the First Amendment when a New Jersey schoolteacher asserted that evolution and the Big Bang are not scientific and that Noah's ark carried dinosaurs. This case is not about the need to separate church and state; it's about the need to separate ignorant, scientifically illiterate people from the ranks of teachers."

"During our brief stay on planet Earth, we owe ourselves and our descendants the opportunity to explore—in part because it's fun to do. But there's a far nobler reason. The day our knowledge of the cosmos ceases to expand, we risk regressing to the childish view that the universe figuratively and literally revolves around us. In that bleak world, arms-bearing, resource-hungry people and nations would be prone to act on their "low contracted prejudices." And that would be the last gasp of human enlightenment—until the rise of a visionary new culture that could once again embrace the cosmic perspective."

"George Bush, within a week of this [the 9/11 attacks], gave us a speech, attempting to distinguish 'we' from 'they' … and how does he do it?.... He says "Our god" — of course it’s actually the same God — but that's a detail, lets hold that minor fact aside for the moment. Allah of the muslims is the same God as the God of the Old Testament so he says … "Our God is the God who named the stars" … Here's the problem with his comment … The problem is: two-thirds of all stars that have names, have Arabic names. I don't think he knew this. That would confound the point that he was making."

"Knowing how things work is important, but I think that's an incomplete view of what science literacy is or, at least, should be. Science literacy is an outlook. It's more of a lens through which you observe what goes on around you."

"Creativity is seeing what everyone else sees, but then thinking a new thought that has never been thought before and expressing it somehow. It could be with art, a sculpture, music or even in science. The difference, however, between scientific creativity and any other kind of creativity, is that no matter how long you wait, no one else will ever compose "Beethoven's Ninth Symphony" except for Beethoven. No matter what you do, no one else will paint Van Gogh's "Starry Night." Only Van Gogh could do that because it came from his creativity.Whereas in science, you can't just make stuff up and presume that it is a proper account of nature. At the end of the day, you have to answer to nature. Since everyone has nature to answer to, your creativity is simply discovering something about the natural world that somebody else would have eventually discovered exactly the same way. They might have come through a different path, but they would have landed in the same place.Even though we name theorems and equations after the people who discover them — Newton's laws of gravity, Kepler's laws of planetary motion — somebody else would have discovered them afterward. It's that simple. Your creativity is not a boundless creativity."

"Some of the most productive times in the histories of nations have been when they were badly stressed — economically, politically, culturally or socially. It's possible to be stressed to a point that more creativity is stimulated than would otherwise be the case. I think it is true that necessity is the mother of invention."

"If you ask adults how many teachers — out of the scores in elementary, middle school, high school, college and graduate school — made a singular impression on who and what they are, it's never more than three or four teachers. Everybody else is a distant second to this set.When we finally create a cloning machine, we should clone those teachers. Maybe that's 100 years from now, but that's at the top of my list. Until that happens, the educational system has not fully understood the causes and effects of achievement and success in life. There remains a culture that equates high grades with success in school and correlates success in school with success in life. That mentality is so deep within us that it may be inextricable from our behavior."

"After your first job, is anyone asking you what your GPA was? No, they don't care. They ask you: Are you a good leader? Do people follow you? Do you have integrity? Are you innovative? Do you solve problems? Somebody's got to do that homework and redesign the educational system so that it can actually train people to be successful in life.I think the greatest teachers are not the ones that are best trained at educational tactics. I don't know a person who's ever said, "Boy, that teacher is so good! The teacher gives such good exams. That teacher gives such good homework sets!" No one has said that about a great teacher. That's not what people remember about the great teachers they've had."

"The best educators are the ones that inspire their students. That inspiration comes from a passion that teachers have for the subject they're teaching. Most commonly, that person spent their lives studying that subject, and they bring an infectious enthusiasm to the audience.I think many people have that enthusiasm, but they are prevented from being teachers because they didn't go through the teacher mill. Now you have teachers who have been through the teacher mill, yet they have no capacity to inspire anyone at all. It's the inspired student that continues to learn on their own. That's what separates the real achievers in the world from those who pedal along, finishing assignments."

"The great tragedy is that they're removing art completely, not because they're putting more science in, but because they can't afford the art teachers or because somebody thinks it's not useful. An enlightened society has all of this going on within it. It's part of what distinguishes what it is to be human from other life forms on Earth — that we have culture."

"I don't know how many people know this, but often it's mindblowing when you learn, that some infinities are bigger than others. [...] The number of counting numbers...so 1, 2, 3, up to infinity...the numbers you would use to count things, that's infinite. The number of irrational numbers...so the numbers you cannot represent as a fraction, okay, there are more of those than there are counting numbers, by far. So these are orders of infinity. Then there are more transcendental numbers than there are irrational numbers. So that's a number you'll never find as a solution to an algebraic equation. So pi is a transcendental number. e is a transcendental number. These are magic numbers that show up in mathematics. And it turns out there's an even bigger infinity of those than there is of these other two classes of numbers. And they use the Hebrew letter aleph in ranking. So it's aleph-1, aleph-2, aleph-3, aleph-4. I think there are five levels of infinity."

"Do parallel universes exist? We don't know, uhm parallel universes are losing favor to the multiverse we have some cogent theoretical expectations that our universe might be just one of many spawned from this, sort of, this hyper-dimensional medium which we'll call the multiverse there's no data to support it but we have good theoretical premise to think that it's there and we have philosophical precedent we used to think Earth was special and unique. It wasn't, we got 8 .. 9 .. 8 planet we thought the Sun was special it's one of a hundred billion suns, the galaxy's special, no there's a hundred billion galaxies we have one universe or do we? The track record said why should there only be one? be open to the possibility that you don't live in the majority [looking?] universe that's out there Would a separate universe .. when you say "different universe" slightly different laws of physics which (that's what I'm asking) oh this is the fun part because if you find, if you manage to get a portal to another universe don't be the first one to volunteer to go through because your atoms are working in this universe if a slightly different law of physics.. you could implode, explode come out with three heads who knows?"

"It has been said that every great emerging scientific truth goes to three phases: First people say: "It can't be true". Second they say: "It conflicts with the bible." Third they say: "It's true all along.""

"I took two bites, bitch!"

"You don't take a dead cat to the vet. I mean you might, but why?"

"Does it mean, if you don’t understand something, and the community of physicists don’t understand it, that means God did it? Is that how you want to play this game? Because if it is, here’s a list of things in the past that the physicists at the time didn’t understand [and now we do understand] [...]. If that’s how you want to invoke your evidence for God, then God is an ever-receding pocket of scientific ignorance that’s getting smaller and smaller and smaller as time moves on - so just be ready for that to happen, if that’s how you want to come at the problem."

"I'm optimistic. I see no longer people accepting fuzzy thinking in the world. The change is not that people aren't still saying under-informed things. The change is that if you're in power and you say something under-informed, there are people out there with a voice who will take you to task for having done so."

"There are people who say "I'll never need this math, these trig identities from 10th grade or 11th grade," or maybe you never learned them. Here's the catch: whether or not you ever again use the math that you learned in school, the act of having learned the math established a wiring in your brain that didn't exist before and it's the wiring in your brain that makes you the problem solver."

"The good thing about science is that it’s true whether or not you believe in it."

"Kids are never the problem. They are born scientists. The problem is always the adults. They beat the curiosity out of the kids. They out-number kids. They vote. They wield resources. That's why my public focus is primarily adults."

"My view is that if your philosophy is not unsettled daily then you are blind to all the universe has to offer."

"Some of the greatest poetry is revealing to the reader the beauty in something that was so simple you had taken it for granted."

"I am trying to convince people--not only the public, but lawmakers and people in power--that investing in the frontier of science, however remote it may seem in its relevance to what you're doing today, is a way of stockpiling the seed corns of future harvests of this nation... Advancing a frontier--history has shown--has advanced a culture ever since the industrial revolution got underway."

"Words that make questions may not be questions at all."

"If you start wielding a hammer, then all your problems look like nails. And maybe they’re not. Maybe it's more subtle than that. And so your toolkit has to be able to morph into what is necessary for what it is that you confront at that moment."

"I could just tell you it's all bunk; but then you wouldn't be empowered to understand why. Other than to quote, "Oh, Doctor Tyson said..." And I never want you to quote me citing my authority as a scientist for your knowing something. If that's what you have to resort to I have failed as an educator. As an educator, it's my duty to empower you to think. So that you can go forth and think accurate thoughts about how the world is put together. Inoculating you against the [people] out there who will exploit your ignorance on anything they possibly can."

"Within one linear centimeter of your lower colon there lives and works more bacteria (about 100 billion) than all humans who have ever been born. Yet many people continue to assert that it is we who are in charge of the world."

"The problem, often not discovered until late in life, is that when you look for things like love, meaning, motivation, it implies they are sitting behind a tree or under a rock. The most successful people recognize, that in life they create their own love, they manufacture their own meaning, they generate their own motivation. For me, I am driven by two main philosophies, know more today about the world than I knew yesterday. And along the way, lessen the suffering of others. You'd be surprised how far that gets you."

"There are street artists. Street musicians. Street actors. But there are no street physicists. A little known secret is that a physicist is one of the most employable people in the marketplace - a physicist is a trained problem solver. How many times have you heard a person in a workplace say, "I wasn't trained for this!" That's an impossible reaction from a physicist, who would say, instead, "Cool. A problem I've never seen before. Let's see how I can figure out how to solve it!" Oh, and, have fun along the way."

"Life is too short for me to worry about something I have no control over that I don’t even know will happen. People ask ‘if Earth is going to be swallowed by a black hole or if there is some disturbance in the spacetime continuum should we worry about it?’. My answer is ‘no’ because you won’t know about it until it crosses your... your place in space-time. Your beats come to you when nature decides it’s the right time... be it the speed of sound, the speed of light, the speed of electrical impulses we will forever be victims of the time delay between information around us and our capacity to receive it."

"What keeps me awake at night: wondering whether human species is just too stupid to figure out the Universe. I just wonder. I lose sleep over that. Because we define ourselves as intelligent— because we made up the test to say that. And we sit alone at the top of the intelligence chart because we invented the exam, and all the other species of life on Earth are not. So who's to say that the first species (us) to be intelligent (us) has just enough intelligence to actually decode everything that's decodable in the Cosmos? [...] Think of the next closest thing to us, the bonobo chimp— 98½% identical DNA, yet you cannot teach them trigonometry, they have no concept of it. So if that's only 1½% difference in our DNA— and so imagine 1½% beyond us, rather than below us, in intelligence. [...] Their toddlers would be talking about things that would completely confound us."

"What is NASA's mission? Is it to beat the russians? Is it to inspire?"

"If you want to assert a truth, first make sure it's not just an opinion that you desperately want to be true."

"All I can say is, the universe is in a good shape, it's earth that has all the problems."

"As important as Steve Jobs was, no doubt about it — [and] you have to add him to Bill Gates, because they birthed the personal computing revolution kind of together — here's the difference: Elon Musk is trying to invent a future, not by providing the next app."

"The universe is under no obligation to make sense to you."

"Ignorance is the natural state of mind for a research scientist. People who believe they are ignorant of nothing have neither looked for, nor stumbled upon, the boundary between what is known and unknown in the universe. What we do know, and what we can assert without further hesitation, is that the universe had a beginning. The universe continues to evolve. And yes, every one of our body’s atoms is traceable to the big bang and to the thermonuclear furnaces within high-mass stars that exploded more than five billion years ago. We are stardust brought to life, then empowered by the universe to figure itself out—and we have only just begun."

"This universality of physical laws drives scientific discovery like nothing else."

"To the scientist, the universality of physical laws makes the cosmos a marvelously simple place. By comparison, human nature—the psychologist’s domain—is infinitely more daunting. In America, local school boards vote on subjects to be taught in the classroom. In some cases, votes are cast according to the whims of cultural, political, or religious tides. Around the world, varying belief systems lead to political differences that are not always resolved peacefully. The power and beauty of physical laws is that they apply everywhere, whether or not you choose to believe in them. In other words, after the laws of physics, everything else is opinion."

"Cosmologists have plenty of ego. How could you not when your job is to deduce what brought the universe into existence?"

"In our own solar system, for example, everything that is not the Sun adds up to less than one fifth of one percent of the Sun’s mass."

"Other unrelenting skeptics might declare that “seeing is believing”—an approach to life that works well in many endeavors, including mechanical engineering, fishing, and perhaps dating. It’s also good, apparently, for residents of Missouri. But it doesn’t make for good science. Science is not just about seeing, it’s about measuring, preferably with something that’s not your own eyes, which are inextricably conjoined with the baggage of your brain. That baggage is more often than not a satchel of preconceived ideas, post-conceived notions, and outright bias."

"Personally, I am quite comfortable with chemicals, anywhere in the universe. My favorite stars, as well as my best friends, are all made of them."

"Of all the sciences cultivated by mankind, Astronomy is acknowledged to be, and undoubtedly is, the most sublime, the most interesting, and the most useful. For, by knowledge derived from this science, not only the bulk of the Earth is discovered . . . ; but our very faculties are enlarged with the grandeur of the ideas it conveys, our minds exalted above [their] low contracted prejudices."

"When I pore over the data that establish the mysterious presence of dark matter and dark energy throughout the universe, sometimes I forget that every day—every twenty-four-hour rotation of Earth—people kill and get killed in the name of someone else’s conception of God, and that some people who do not kill in the name of God, kill in the name of needs or wants of political dogma."

"Within a month of opening day, I received a letter from an Ivy League professor of psychology whose expertise was in things that make people feel insignificant…He wanted to administer a before-and-after questionnaire to visitors, assessing the depth of their depression after viewing the show. Passport to the Universe, he wrote, elicited the most dramatic feelings of smallness and insignificance he had ever experienced. How could that be? Every time I see the space show (and others we’ve produced), I feel alive and spirited and connected. I also feel large, knowing that the goings-on within the three-pound human brain are what enabled us to figure out our place in the universe. Allow me to suggest that it’s the professor, not I, who has misread nature. His ego was unjustifiably big to begin with, inflated by delusions of significance and fed by cultural assumptions that human beings are more important than everything else in the universe. In all fairness to the fellow, powerful forces in society leave most of us susceptible. As was I, until the day I learned in biology class that more bacteria live and work in one centimeter of my colon, than the number of people who have ever existed in the world. That kind of information makes you think twice about who–or what–is actually in charge. From that day on, I began to think of people not as the masters of space and time but as participants in a great cosmic chain of being, with a direct genetic link across species both living and extinct, extending back nearly four billion years to the earliest single-celled organisms on Earth."

"If a huge genetic gap separated us from our closest relative in the animal kingdom, we could justifiably celebrate our brilliance. We might be entitled to walk around thinking we’re distant and distinct from our fellow creatures. But no such gap exists. Instead, we are one with the rest of nature, fitting neither above nor below, but within."

"The cosmic perspective flows from fundamental knowledge. But it’s more than about what you know. It’s also about having the wisdom and insight to apply that knowledge to assessing our place in the universe. And its attributes are clear: The cosmic perspective comes from the frontiers of science, yet it is not solely the provenance of the scientist. It belongs to everyone. The cosmic perspective is humble. The cosmic perspective is spiritual—even redemptive—but not religious. The cosmic perspective enables us to grasp, in the same thought, the large and the small. The cosmic perspective opens our minds to extraordinary ideas but does not leave them so open that our brains spill out, making us susceptible to believing anything we’re told. The cosmic perspective opens our eyes to the universe, not as a benevolent cradle designed to nurture life but as a cold, lonely, hazardous place, forcing us to reassess the value of all humans to one another. The cosmic perspective shows Earth to be a mote. But it’s a precious mote and, for the moment, it’s the only home we have. The cosmic perspective finds beauty in the images of planets, moons, stars, and nebulae, but also celebrates the laws of physics that shape them. The cosmic perspective enables us to see beyond our circumstances, allowing us to transcend the primal search for food, shelter, and a mate. The cosmic perspective reminds us that in space, where there is no air, a flag will not wave, an indication that perhaps flag-waving and space exploration do not mix. The cosmic perspective not only embraces our genetic kinship with all life on Earth but also values our chemical kinship with any yet-to-be discovered life in the universe, as well as our atomic kinship with the universe itself."

"At least once a week, if not once a day, we might each ponder what cosmic truths lie undiscovered before us, perhaps awaiting the arrival of a clever thinker, an ingenious experiment, or an innovative space mission to reveal them. We might further ponder how those discoveries may one day transform life on Earth. Absent such curiosity, we are no different from the provincial farmer who expresses no need to venture beyond the county line, because his forty acres meet all his needs. Yet if all our predecessors had felt that way, the farmer would instead be a cave dweller, chasing down his dinner with a stick and a rock."

"in Space where there ain't no gravity, helicopter dick really do be a way to travel."

"... the anatomy of a sound bite is—it's gotta be interesting. And it's gotta be tasty. It should also be a little bit fun to hear ... so that you smile. And it's gotta have enough of all that to want to tell someone else that you just learned something. ... I have a master class on thinking like a scientist and how to communicate what you know in your expertise to others."

"Science is a cooperative enterprise spanning the generations. It's the passing of a torch from teacher to student to teacher; a community of minds reaching back to antiquity and forward to the stars. (From the first Cosmos: ASO episode, Standing Up in the Milky Way.)"

"The Theory of Evolution, like the Theory of Gravity, is a scientific fact. Evolution really happened. Accepting our kinship with all life on earth is not only solid science, in my view, it's also a soaring spiritual experience. (From the second Cosmos: ASO episode, Some of the Things That Molecules Do.)"

"Halley shattered their monopoly, beating them at their own game. A game that no scientist had ever played before: Prophecy. -S01E03"

"Ibn al-Haytham was the first person ever to set down the rules of science. -S01E05"

"In this moment, I am euphoric. Not because of any phony god’s blessing. But because, I am enlightened by my intelligence"

"he does have that same passion to connect that is critical if you want to be a science communicator."

"The Big Bang theory has been extremely successful in describing the history and evolution of the Universe, and new experiments and observations continue to confirm the basic predictions of this theory. But we do not yet know the answer to the question"

"Neutrinos are fundamental subatomic particles produced in nuclear reactions, like those in the sun. We always talk about the fact that we can’t see neutrinos or dark matter and that basically they’re invisible, but if you think about it from the other side, we’re also invisible to them."

"Nothing in nature or the cosmos is ever completely still — as I write this, several wild Mallards have returned to the Museum courtyard and are creating a frantic spectacle of water and wings as they dive and attack in their annual spring ritual. Further from home, a supermassive black hole at the center of a galaxy 56 million light years from Earth has recently been observed to be spinning at close to the speed of light."

"It is worthy of notice that in Table VI the brighter variables have the longer periods. It is also noticeable that those having the longest periods appear to be as regular in their variations as those which pass through their changes in a day or two."

"The discovery of variable stars, at this Observatory and elsewhere, has progressed so rapidly during the last five years, that the difficulty of keeping pace in observing and discussing them has become very great. In the study of distribution now in progress here, the actual time devoted to the search for new variables is small, but thorough observation requires much time, while the discussion of results may be prolonged almost indefinitely. When new lists of variables are published, therefore, it should be remembered that their discovery does not interfere materially with the study of individual objects. The number of these is so large that the publication of full results for all must be greatly delayed."

"Apparently no sharp dividing line can be drawn between true Algol stars and those whose variations are continuous. Periods of nine variables in this region, which are of the Algol type or closely resemble it, have been determined and are here discussed."

"The range of H 1255 is only four tenths of a magnitude, and on account of its brightness it is difficult to observe on all plates except those taken with the 1-inch Cooke lens. It seemed necessary, therefore, to take unusual precautions in order to secure accurate observations, and to give each one its full weight. Accordingly, one hundred and thirty six photographs were selected, including nearly all of those taken with the Cooke lens, and also those taken with the 8 inch Bache Telescope on which the variable was certainly faint. Four independent estimates of brightness were made on each plate, and means were taken, thus reducing the probable error one half. The phase was computed for each observation, thus covering all parts of the light curve. ...H 1255 and H 1303 differ from the other variables in a marked degree as in each case the duration of the phase of minimum is very long in proportion to the length of the period. This fact led to considerable difficulty in determining their periods as they were apparently at their minimum brightness for some time before and after the actual minima occurred. In H 1255, the change in brightness is obviously continuous throughout the period, although it is much more rapid near minimum than near maximum. This is clearly seen in Plate IV, Figs. 5 and 6."

"A remarkable relation between the brightness of these Cepheid] variables and the length of their periods will be noticed. In H.A. 60, No.4, attention was called to the fact that the brighter variables have the longer periods, but at that time it was felt that the number was too small the drawing of general conclusions. The periods of 8 additional variables which have been determined since that time, however, conform to the same law. The relation is shown graphically in Figure 1... The two resulting curves, one for the maxima and one for the minima, are surprisingly smooth, and of remarkable form. In Figure 2, the abscissas are equal to the logarithms of the periods, and the ordinates to the corresponding magnitudes, as in Figure 1. A straight line can readily be drawn among each of the two series of points corresponding to the maxima and minima, thus showing that there is a simple relation between the brightness of the variables and their periods. The logarithm of the period increases by about 0.48 for each increase of one magnitude in brightness."

"Since the Cepheid] variables are probably at nearly the same distance from the Earth, their periods are apparently associated with their actual emission of light, as determined by their mass, density, and surface brightness."

"It is to be hoped, also, that the parallaxes of some variables of this type may be measured."

"It is hoped that systematic study of the light changes of all the variables, nearly two thousand in number, in the two Magellanic Clouds may soon be undertaken at this Observatory."

"A determination of the visual magnitudes of the stars had a very large place in the work of the Observatory during the first half of Professor Pickering's directorate. As soon as the need of photographic magnitudes became urgent, the importance of a standard sequence, from which the photographic magnitudes could be derived for stars anywhere in the sky, became evident. A sequence of stars of varying magnitudes had been early selected near the North Pole, and the determination of the magnitudes of the stars involved was assigned to Miss Leavitt. This work was carried out with unusual originality, skill, and patience."

"About 1906 a Durchmustering of variable stars was proposed at the Harvard Observatory. Somewhat later this was undertaken on plates included in the Map of the Sky... A comparison of the photographs of a number of these regions by Miss Leavitt led to the discovery of several hundred variables and other special objects. Among them were a number of stars of the Algol type."

"One of the most striking accomplishments of Miss Leavitt was the discovery of 1,777 variable stars in the Magellanic Clouds. These results were [made] possible by photographs of long exposure made at Arequipa with the 24-inch Bruce refractor and forwarded to Cambridge. Some of these plates had exposures of from two to four hours and showed very faint stars, among which nearly all the variables are found. ...from a study of 25 of them, the important law was derived, that the length of period bears a definite relation to the absolute magnitude."

"In addition to these larger labors, Miss Leavitt took part in various minor investigations. She gave considerable time to the discovery of new celestial objects. Altogether, she found 4 new stars, 2400 variable stars, or about one half of the known variables, and various asteroids and other objects."

"Miss Leavitt was of an especially quiet and retiring nature, and absorbed in her work to an unusual degree. She had the highest esteem of all her associates at the Harvard Observatory, where her loss is keenly felt."

"Apart from her few and very important scientific papers, Leavitt left behind almost no traces of her life. She was born on the Fourth of July 1868 in Lancaster, Mass., and died of cancer on Dec. 12, 1921. Her will tells nearly all. She left an estate worth $314.91, mostly in Liberty Bonds, with a few items such as a desk valued at $5. She never married and had few living relatives. She also left behind a legacy of a great astronomical discovery."

"Hubble tackled two of the most fundamental questions of the universe: how old is it, and how big? To answer both it is necessary to know two things—how far away certain galaxies are and how fast they are flying away from us. The red shift gives the speed at which galaxies are retiring, but doesn't tell us how far away they are to begin with. For that you need what are known as "standard candles"—stars whose brightness can be reliably calculated and used as benchmarks... Hubble's luck was to come along soon after an ingenious woman named Henrietta Swan Leavitt had figured out a way to do so."

"As a senior in 1892 Leavitt was introduced to astronomy. She was fascinated by it, and after graduation she enrolled in a course to study the subject full time. Tragically Henrietta Leavitt was suddenly struck down by a serous illness, and she was forced to spend over two years at home recovering. Her illness left her profoundly deaf. ...when she felt fit enough she put forward her name in 1895 as a volunteer worker at Harvard College Observatory."

"The photographic plates from Peru that Leavitt was studying in Harvard covered two clouds of stars, known as the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds... During the course of her painstaking work, Leavitt noticed that the Cepheids in the Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC) showed an overall pattern of behaviour in which the brighter Cepheids... went through their cycle more slowly. The initial discovery was reported in 1908, and by 1912 Leavitt had enough data to pin down this period-luminosity relationship in a mathematical formula, established from her study of twenty-five Cepheids in the SMC. ...Leavitt found a clear mathematical relationship between the apparent brightness of a Cepheid in the SMC and its period... This could only mean that the absolute magnitudes of Cepheids are related to one another in the same way, since the distance effect is essentially the same for all of the Cepheids in the SMC. All that was needed now was to find the distance to just one or two Cepheids in our neighborhood... so that distances... could be worked out from the period-luminosity law that Leavitt had discovered."

"She and others realized that one needed only to calculate the distance to these [Magellanic] Cepheids, which almost certainly were roughly the same distance to the earth, to have a useful yardstick for measuring other distances."

"She deserved the Nobel Prize for her work."

"He acknowledges the use and calibration of her period-luminosity relation first by Hertzsprung and later by Shapley and ends the “Period- Luminosity Relations to Cepheids” section in his book without ever mentioning that he, Hubble, had used Shapley’s technique. ...Hubble’s underwhelming acknowledgment of Henrietta Leavitt is an example of the ongoing denial and lack of the professional and public recognition that Henrietta Leavitt suffers from, despite her landmark discovery. With the exception of naming a moon crater after her, the profession of astronomy has not done much to celebrate her work. No astronomy prize is named after her and the period-luminosity relation has not been renamed as the H. Leavitt law."

"I should be willing to pay thirty cents an hour in view of the quality of your work, although our usual price, in such cases, is twenty five cents an hour."

"The following statement regarding the periods of 25 variable stars in the Small Magellanic Cloud has been prepared by Miss Leavitt."

"By the death of Miss Leavitt on December 12, 1921, the Observatory lost an investigator of the highest value. She had obtained a comprehensive experience in photographic photometry, and had developed a clear appreciation of the difficulties involved in the theory and practice of this important research. Her work on standard magnitude sequences was nearly concluded at the time of her death, but she had hardly begun work on her extensive program of photographic measures of variable stars. In the foregoing summary no mention has been made of Miss Leavitt's work on standard photometry..."

"How far are the spiral nebulae? How large is the universe? We cannot begin to answer these questions unless we measure the distance of heavenly objects. The breakthrough was made by Henrietta Leavitt, who was interested in a rather special class of stars, the Cepheids. The intensity of light coming from Cepheids rises and falls regularly with time... Concentrating on one of the Magellanic Clouds, she found that there was a very close relationship... The brighter the Cepheid was, the longer its period. The distance of the Magellanic Cloud is so great that the stars there can be regarded as all being effectively the same distance from the Earth. If you are in Los Angeles, everybody in Carnegie Hall is about the same distance from you. ...Suppose that a Cepheid in the cloud has a certain brightness and a period of one week. Now look at another Cepheid in some more distant galaxy. If it has the same period, we can assume it has the same intrinsic brightness, and yet it is dimmer than it should be. ...we can work out the relative distance from Earth. A star of the same intrinsic brightness that is twice as far away will be four times dimmer. ...It is slightly complicated by the effects on brightness of interstellar dust clouds, but it was a huge step forward."

"Miss Henrietta Swan Leavitt, for more than twenty years a member of the staff of the Harvard Astronomical Observatory, died at her home in Cambridge on Dec. 12. She was a graduate of Radcliffe College, and had studied astronomy as a graduate student. She joined the staff of the Harvard Observatory in 1895, and finally was in charge of the department of photographic stellar photometry. She determined the brightness of a series of stars near the north pole ranging from the fourth to the twentieth magnitude; discovered four new stars and 2,400 variables of about half of all the known variable stars; formulated a law establishing a definite relation between the brightness and the length of period of such variables; and made other noteworthy achievements in astronomy. The scientific results of her work form parts of volumes 60, 71, 84, and 85 in the "Annals of the Harvard Observatory.""

"To the Editor of the Bulletin: In Professor Hart's most interesting and illuminating article printed in the Alumni Bulletin he remarks that barring certain exceptions "petticoats are considered to have no place in Harvard or a Harvard Catalogue." Unfortunately this statement is only too true, and I believe the time is ripe to take serious account of the important and indispensable services that women are rendering to the University in technical and administrative positions in her offices and her institutions. We have recently read in the papers of the death of Miss Henrietta S. Leavitt of the Astronomical Observatory, whose work in photographic photometry gave her an international reputation... in fact, the services that the women have rendered at the Observatory are too well known in the scientific world to need further comment. ...Harvard should follow the lead already taken by the other large universities of the country, including California, Chicago, Columbia, Princeton, and Yale, in recognizing high grade service afforded by women on its staff, and this recognition should be not merely the inclusion of their names in the Catalogue... but should carry with it privileges of retirement and pension funds and of leave of absence at stated periods in order to afford opportunity for study and research. Several of the universities named are already ahead of Harvard in this respect, and in some of them women occupying high grade technical positions take rank with instructors and assistant professors when their acquirements and the nature of their work make them worthy of it. ...my heading "Petticoats in Harvard" is not an attempt to bring up the question is... only a plea for fitting recognition of scholarly work efficiently and faithfully performed in our midst by an unrecognized body of experts."

"I've never observed wisdom to emerge from shouting."

"You can lead a theorist to data, but you can't make him think."

"Obvious results provoke opposition. The more obvious the result, the stronger the opposition."

"It is often stated that the evidence for is overwhelming. This is not quite correct: the evidence for mass discrepancies is overwhelming. These might be attributed to either dark matter or a modification of gravity."

"My gut reaction to all these questions is negative. But it appears that one set or the other must be answered in the affirmative. Either way, we are missing something fundamental about the nature of our universe."

"I came to the subject a True Believer in dark matter, but it was MOND that nailed the predictions for the LSB galaxies that I was studying (McGaugh & de Blok, 1998), not any flavor of dark matter. So what I am supposed to conclude?"

"One should not only be truthful, but as complete as possible. It does not suffice to be truthful while leaving unpleasant or unpopular facts unsaid."

"A long standing prediction (Milgrom 1983) of MOND is that rotating galaxy curves will fall on a single mass-velocity relation with slope 4: Mb \propto Vf4. This prediction is realized in multiple independent data sets. Gas rich galaxies fall where predicted by MOND with no free parameters. There are not many predictions in extragalactic astronomy that fare so well a quarter century after their publication. … a physical understanding for why galaxy formation in the context of ΛCDM should pick out the particular phenomenology predicted a priori by MOND remains wanting."

"The current cosmological paradigm, the cold dark matter model with a cosmological constant, requires that the mass-energy of the Universe be dominated by invisible components: dark matter and dark energy. An alternative to these dark components is that the law of gravity be modified on the relevant scales. A test of these ideas is provided by the baryonic Tully-Fisher relation (BTFR), an empirical relation between the observed mass of a galaxy and its rotation velocity. Here, I report a test using gas rich galaxies for which both axes of the BTFR can be measured independently of the theories being tested and without the systematic uncertainty in stellar mass that affects the same test with star dominated spirals. The data fall precisely where predicted a priori by the modified Newtonian dynamics."

"... It was (in part) Gross’s excessive enthusiasm for string theory in the mid-80s that drove me (as an impressionable grad student at Princeton) away from theoretical physics (and into astronomy). String theory may have been a beautiful idea, but it made no predictions that could be tested experimentally in the then-foreseeable future. That’s not science. A quarter century later and the theoretical physics community has yet to wake up and realize that there is new physics right under their noses – just not the new physics they’ve been expecting (GUTs, strings, membranes, etc.). Galaxy dynamics are consistent with a single, universal force law, but this unexpected behavior has largely been ignored because it doesn’t fit with particle theorists’ dreams of super symmetric dark matter particles. That we do not understand the observed behavior makes it more interesting than the “expected” (but unobserved) new physics: who ordered this?"

"The concordance model of cosmology, ΛCDM, provides a satisfactory description of the evolution of the universe and the growth of large scale structure. Despite considerable effort, this model does not at present provide a satisfactory description of small scale structure and the dynamics of bound objects like individual galaxies. In contrast, MOND provides a unique and predictively successful description of galaxy dynamics, but is mute on the subject of cosmology. … it is far from obvious that the mass spectrum of galaxy clusters or the power spectrum of galaxies can be explained in MOND, two things that ΛCDM does well. Critical outstanding issues are the development of an acceptable relativistic parent theory for MOND, and the reality of the non-baryonic dark matter of ΛCDM. Do suitable dark matter particles exist, or are they a modern aether?"

"People have been looking for this dark matter because there is a Nobel prize, for sure, waiting for whoever discovers it."

"I have experienced time and again people dismissing the data because they think MOND is wrong, so I am very consciously drawing a red line between the theory and the data."

"Why does MOND get any predictions right? It has had many a priori predictions come true. Why does this happen?"

"... I was deeply shocked when it was not my predictions or any of my immediate colleagues' predictions that came true in my data — but Milgrom's. This was completely outside my conceptual framework."

"A long time ago when I first got interested in MOND, having come from the background where I believed in dark matter, I wrote a proposal saying, "Gee, this theory had its predictions come true, ... we should look into that" and it was rejected, you know, very harshly. And I thought "OK, the community is not willing to fund this kind of thing" — this was almost twenty years ago. And so I basically did a global substitute, replaced MOND with dark matter, resubmitted, and I got my money. ... Pavel is totally correct that scientists are focused on getting grants, because that's what you need to support your students, and your postdocs, and getting the data, and all those sort of things. And I would like to believe that that was an anecdote from the distant past, but I am aware of a colleague who had this experience very recently where this person did not even mention MOND in the proposal, but the panel came back saying "MOND is no good — you must not spend money on this." ... the panel had associated ... this person's name with having at some point written a paper about MOND and projected that onto this proposal that ... did not mention MOND. And so it really is that bad."

"Whenever I come across a case that doesn't make sense in MOND, it usually doesn't make sense in either."

"... Dark matter provides the additional gravitational pull to bring model and reality broadly into alignment. Researchers now routinely take this model – Einstein plus dark matter, often called the ‘null hypothesis’ – as their starting point and then perform detailed calculations of galactic systems to test it. ... Most recently, Stacy McGaugh at Case Western Reserve University in Ohio and his team documented that the pattern of rotation in spiral galaxies seems to precisely follow the pattern of the visible matter alone, posing yet another challenge to the null hypothesis."

"The working of great administrations is mainly the result of a vast mass of routine, petty malice, self-interest, carelessness and sheer mistake. Only a residual fraction is thought."

"Mans can't make moons"

"Marine navigation blends both science and art. A good navigator constantly thinks strategically, operationally, and tactically. He plans each voyage carefully. As it proceeds, he gathers navigational information from a variety of sources, evaluates this information, and determines his ship’s position. He then compares that position with his voyage plan, his operational commitments, and his predetermined “dead reckoning” position. A good navigator anticipates dangerous situations well before they arise, and always stays “ahead of the vessel.” He is ready for navigational emergencies at any time. He is increasingly a manager of a variety of resources--electronic, mechanical, and human. Navigation methods and techniques vary with the type of vessel, the conditions, and the navigator’s experience. The navigator uses the methods and techniques best suited to the vessel, its equipment, and conditions at hand. Some important elements of successful navigation cannot be acquired from any book or instructor. The science of navigation can be taught, but the art of navigation must be developed from experience."

"The Earth is an irregular oblate spheroid (a sphere flattened at the poles). Measurements of its dimensions and the amount of its flattening are subjects of geodesy. However, for most navigational purposes, assuming a spherical Earth introduces insignificant error. The Earth’s axis of rotation is the line connecting the north and south geographic poles. A great circle is the line of intersection of a sphere and a plane through its center. This is the largest circle that can be drawn on a sphere. The shortest line on the surface of a sphere between two points on the surface is part of a great circle. On the spheroidal Earth the shortest line is called a geodesic. A great circle is a near enough approximation to a geodesic for most problems of navigation."

"The Pale Blue Dot image of Earth is not a stunning image. But that didn’t matter in the end, because it was the way that Carl romanced it, turning it into an allegory on the human condition, that has ever since made the phrase “Pale Blue Dot” and the image itself synonymous with an inspirational call to planetary brotherhood and protection of Earth."

"Interviewer at astronaut interview: Dr. O’Leary, would you submit to a hazardous two-year journey to Mars? O’Leary: Whew. A two-year trip to Mars. I must admit that I haven’t given it much thought. Are you serious? Interviewer: Sure we’re serious. You’re twenty-seven years old, you could be an astronaut for twenty years and within twenty years we could be sending men to Mars. And Mars is your field of specialty, isn’t it, Dr. O’Leary?"

"Deke [Slayton], I’ve spent a month now at flight school, have flown fifteen hours and soloed, and after much soul-searching, I have decided to resign from the program. I guess flying isn’t my cup of tea."

"Two years ago, I resigned from the scientist‐astronaut program primarily because of NASA's indifference to science in its manned space efforts. Since then an impressive array of scientists associated with the Apollo program have also resigned for similar reasons. They include the chief scientist, the director of the Lunar Receiving Laboratory, the principal investigator of Apollo lunar surface geology, the curator of the lunar samples, and another scientist-astronaut.It seems utterly incredible that so many well-respected scientists could resign at a time one would suppose to be their finest hour - the return of the first rocks and detailed pictures from the lunar surface. Eugene Shoemaker, now the chairman of Caltech's Division of Geological Sciences, quit his Apollo work “out of deep concern for the direction of the nation's space goal.” He described Apollo as a “poor system for exploring the moon… The same job could have been done with unmanned systems at one-fifth the cost three or four years ago.” […] In these times of conflicting, uncertain goals both inside and outside NASA, I think the unmanned planetary program provides a good example of what can be done. The Mariner 6 and 7 flyby missions gave us remarkable pictures and valuable scientific information, yet each cost less than 15 percent of the price of sending two test pilots to the moon.In the future, probes will be sent to the Martian surface and to the other planets; these relatively inexpensive projects should go far in satisfying our most fundamental reason for going into space: to understand nature and ourselves better by exploring the universe."

"I sympathize with my former colleagues in Houston who are spending ten years, perhaps forever, awaiting their flights into space. But this alone cannot justify the shuttle.On the positive side, I believe that an unmanned space program emphasizing applications satellites and the exploration of the planets would be both economical and fundamental in our quest for knowledge. Such a program could be funded annually for between one and two billion dollars and thus free money and resources for more urgent priorities. Cooperating with the Soviet Union may reduce the costs further."

"What I am suggesting is the indefinite postponement of the space shuttle program, a reduction in excessive NASA management costs and the establishment of a moderate unmanned space program emphasizing space science and applications. I believe all this can be done with an annual budget of less than $2 billion. How about changing the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston into the National Energy Research Center?"

"Deforestation, pollution, carbon dioxide buildup, radioactive releases, strip-mining, and the danger of nuclear war are among the many sources of concern environmentalists have expressed about our future. The overwhelming consensus is that the planet is seriously threatened by environmental neglect."

"Can we really accomplish a program like Mars 1999? The sad truth is, we won’t be able to do it in today’s climate. Today’s paralysis will be tomorrow’s paralysis unless the workings of the institutions and the attitudes of individuals at the helm change toward the positive. The prerequisite to a successful Mars 1999 program is not engineering feasibility. It is people. And there is hope. Meanwhile, as the dust settles from Challenger, NASA continues to search its soul. In the wake of the accident, it becomes all the more evident that the U.S. civilian space program has been suffering from conflicting interests and goals, intercenter rivalries, uneconomical operations, and an apparent inability to make the sweeping changes that are required. Management of the space station program suffers from this confusion. The space agency’s technical achievements have been, and continue to be, extraordinary. Nowhere can more intelligent and competent engineers and scientists be found. But there appears to be a bureaucratic inertia that inhibits the innovative thinking and risk taking required to blaze new trails."

"My mind doubted that there was any meaning to this exercise. I had not been educated to believe that there could be anything real about telepathy. The demonstration of such powers was all idle speculation to me. Nevertheless, I stayed with the exercise, once again going into a deep trance. An image came up. I saw myself seeing a man, dark-haired and in his forties, walking along a beach on the west coast of Maui in Hawaii. He was without a woman and somewhat sad about it, as he walked into an idyllic make-believe house that I had made for him. I showed him globes and maps. He asked questions and we had a strong rapport. We looked up at billowing clouds, wafting above palm trees which were blowing in the wind. In this imaginative mock-up we shared, he was teaching me about the climate and physical geography of the Hawaiian Islands. I knew I wasn’t guessing. I was either “channeling” some truth or imagining something vivid. My female partner broke into my reverie to inform me that the man had lost his wife by death, was a meteorologist and journalist by profession, and had spent much time on Maui. She said my description fit him to a T."

"In some respects our position is similar to that of the late eighteenth-century pioneers in electricity and magnetism, and also to that of early 20th-century relativists and quantum physicists who had to reconcile the otherworldly properties of the very large and the very small with the nature of ordinary, human-scale reality. But I believe that the New Science of today must take even a more fundamental “quantum” leap. As the experiments of Robert Jahn and others conclusively show, we are dealing with the direct interaction of the human mind not only with subatomic particles but with the gross, material world. This demands the development of new paradigms in physics, biology, and medicine, to say nothing of new models of consciousness itself."

"In 1979 Jahn and I began to develop a new mutual interest, although we did not learn of our commonality until several years later. The subject was psychokenesis, and it was so far outside our left-brained aerospace view of reality that it would take several years before either of us felt comfortable speaking about it in public. We were “closet parapsychologists,” afraid to reveal ourselves to the skeptical frowns of our Princeton colleagues. Nevertheless we began, independently, to explore inner space; it was so intriguing and had such a siren’s call to our thirst for understanding that we simply had to heed it, even knowing that the world would look on in disbelief if it were disclosed."

"We must now rewrite the laws of physics so that the results of such experiments are no longer anomalous. In doing so, we must never forget that the “laws” we write are simply reflections of our own current understanding of reality. They must never be confused with reality itself, which is always greater than the words and concepts we use in our attempts to manage it."

"But, as the 1970s began to close, while holding a faculty position in the physics department at Princeton University, I began to have some experiences that appeared to violate the “laws of nature” that I had so revered and had taught as my gospel. A remote viewing experience, a near-death experience, a mind-over-matter healing of an “incurable” knee, all led me into a new territory which none of my scientific colleagues seemed to want to enter."

"The governments and private industry in India and Japan are funding top-level scientists and engineers to develop free energy for commercial applications, something about which the American government appears to know little or nothing. Cold fusion pioneers Martin Fleischman and Stanley Pons, formerly of the University of Utah, are now in France being funded by a Japanese consortium. The inventor of the N-machine, Bruce DePalma, formerly of MIT, is now developing his free energy concepts in New Zealand. Other American inventors and researchers have gone underground most of the time (e.g. Thomas Bearden and Sparky Sweet), have been sued (Sweet), had their devices confiscated by the Government (e.g., the Canadian inventor John Hutchinson and American Dennis Lee), been convicted and jailed under questionable charges (Lee) and in at least one case have been told by the Government to change careers – or else (e.g. Adam Trombly).In all, I have met several dozen free energy researchers. What all of these individuals have in common is the underfunding of their work such that it proceeds to proof-of-concept but no further. Developing useful prototypes requires a much larger effort as would come from bringing the researchers together in a research and development effort analogous to the Apollo or Manhattan projects. But there has been no public and little private support for free energy inventors – particularly in the United States – even though this country is where most of the ideas come from. We seem to be so active in repressing this technology we have driven most of our brightest inventors away or underground. The remarkable fact is, we seem to have had this technology for one century! Nikola Tesla was among the first of such energy mavericks, who through the decades, have repeatedly demonstrated free energy, only to be suppressed later. For a whole century we probably didn’t have to pollute the Earth to meet our energy needs!"

"Our American system may have initially been the lesser of evils, but the unfolding revelations of our true nature inherent in new science discoveries would clearly render most of the Federal Government’s pursuit of decadent technological initiatives such as Star Wars, nuclear overkill, NASA, DOE, and Department of Defense priorities and huge industrial infrastructure obsolete and a threat to our well-being."

"[…] my basis for confidence in declaring my reality checks as valid is based primarily on observing repeatable, nonlinear electric outputs in many demonstrations and in replicated experiments which I have witnessed. I could not explain the anomalous results in traditional ways. These direct observations combined with a rudimentary theoretical understanding of the physics give me reasonable confidence that the effects both measured and calculated are real. Add to this fact that I am building relationships with these individuals based on growing mutual respect and trust among colleagues. I would be surprised that all of these people, for the years of work they have put into these experiments, are either deliberately or naïvely fraudulent. On the contrary, these are the explorers of a new reality, often cut off from the mainstream, because the mainstream will more often than not debunk this reality, with a denial based on the most superficial and ad hoc reasoning."

"This situation is intensified by the fact that, in spite of the appearance of polluted cities of the Third World, the United States continues to lead the way in exploiting the environment. With only five percent of the world’s population, we Americans consume one-fourth of the world’s energy and one-third of its raw materials. I am not proud of this. My own sense of grief is especially heightened by the fact that I am a citizen of the leading polluter nation, as well as being an individual member of a supposedly sentient species which is causing the greatest mass extinction since that of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago. Most of us are complacent, distracted or conveniently ignorant, in part because of the overwhelming depth of the situation. As Walt Kelly’s Pogo said, “We have met the enemy, and the enemy is us!”"

"Observations such as the observer effect of quantum mechanics, psychokenesis, remote viewing, anomalous healing, UFOs, abductions, crop circles, precognition, near-death experiences, reincarnation, mediumship, free energy effects have all been investigated and verified as anomalous. It only takes time to integrate the widely scattered data, but once this is done, some patterns begin to emerge. From all this I proposed that we need a bigger box of scientific inquiry to embrace anomalous phenomena - a new science. Among many of these experiments, I found a common denominator some of us call consciousness."

"My contemplation led to what might be one of the most radical and yet believable (to me) conspiracy theories of all: if we do our healing work well, someone will either point a gun to our heads (and maybe shoot it) or give us a bribe to keep quiet, to cease doing our work if we want to stay alive. Sometimes they can even order us to help them do their dirty work."

"Dear Mr. [Al] Gore: I am a former astronaut, Cornell professor, physics faculty member at Princeton University and visiting faculty member in technology assessment at the University of California, Berkeley School of Law, I was Mo Udall’s energy advisor and speechwriter during his 1975 Presidential campaign, author, AAAS Fellow, World Innovation Foundation Fellow, NASA group achievement award recipient, and founder of the New Energy Movement.You have asked the public to address the important question, “How can we reverse global climate change?” I agree that taking on that task is critical for our collective survival. You have also stated that we must freeze and drastically reduce our carbon emissions. I agree.The most promising answer to your question is surprisingly simple and can be summed up in two words: new energy. My experience finds that serious discussion of new energy is still politically incorrect in mainstream circles, which is appalling. Delays in implementing life-saving innovation will be at our collective risk and peril. The urgency for action in these times is unprecedented in the human journey. Quantum leaps in energy innovation, which some of us in the scientific community are aware of, can provide the needed solution, hopefully in time to avert global disaster."

"Nuclear power. Carbon sequestration at coal plants. Ethanol-from-corn. Other kinds of biofuels. Carbon cap-and-trading. Hybrid cars. Conventional electric cars. Air cars. Gas-turbine micropower. Efficient powerplants. Hydrogen economy. Hydro-power. Geothermal energy. Solar. Wind. Tides. Waves. Ocean thermal gradients.Which one(s) of these will solve our climate crisis and give us a large and lasting contribution to energy sustainability? The sobering answer to any truthful inquiry, I am sorry to say, is none of the above."

"Between 2002 and 2006, I taught a course in the Masters program in Transformational Psychology at the University of Philosophical Research in Los Angeles. Part of the intent of the course was to embrace all four cultures of the Phoenix. The title of the course was Science, Ecology, Ethics and Consciousness. The attendance was low, but the students that did attend were among the most aware and sentient beings I have ever met. They began to understand how important all four cultures were for our future, and if we leave out any of these qualities and beliefs, or specialize too much in any one, we will box ourselves in.[…] I believe that the world needs to come together in a blend from the four cultures of the Phoenix, but only the “Spiritualists” of consciousness scientists can provide lasting solutions. All other groups [Truth-Seekers, Deep Ecologists, and Pragmatists] simply do not have the awareness to get there, but they have an important role to play in presenting the depth of our problems."

"You can have all your scientific method down, all your experiments done accurately and recorded in minute detail. But most of the significant, universe-changing advances in science were not done by methodically plodding ahead with reasonable steps. Things like Einstein's theory of relativity or the foundations of quantum mechanics came about more as hunches. Scientists talk about a theory being elegant - it just feels right. Sometimes you have to just trust your instincts. People often talk about following your head or your heart, but sometimes there's a deeper feeling you follow. Sometimes you follow your guts, your instincts. Scientists are also trained to do that."

"I also love working for the government (no really!). There is more security working for a government lab and I didn't have to get tenure. The people at NASA are so good -so dedicated, so fun to be with"

"I'd say that getting started on research early as an undergraduate makes a big difference. If, like me, you don't come from a family background in this area, there are so many exciting things to work on that I knew little about. Undergraduate research upended my preconceived notions of what work in space research is like. I had no idea about what jobs even existed. Working in industry can also be a tremendously valuable experience. Systems engineering work provides a great overview of how spacecraft are built and operated, and seeing the teamwork and cameraderie is inspiring. Teamwork is essential to making missions work; it's like being part of a band or a sports team in that regard. A successful space mission represents hundreds or even thousands of people working together for a common goal, so building teamwork skills is a good idea."

"My family was always interested in nature, and that made me curious about it too – we liked to learn about birds and plants and rocks together. It was really fun! In every bird, plant, or rock, there’s a great story waiting to be learned – it’s like watching a really interesting movie or reading a great book. Now, as a professional scientist, it’s my job to learn things about nature. Every day is different from the next, and there’s always something wonderful to learn about the universe and the world around us."

"Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence, and it is my job, my responsibility, as an astronomer to remind people that alien hypotheses should always be a last resort."

"Church officials in the past may have looked with great suspicion on the writings of, say, Teilhard de Chardin; but this same Church did, after all, produce a Teilhard. Even earlier, John Henry Newman was made a cardinal notwithstanding his liberal views. Prominent theologians in every era, going back to the most ancient Church fathers, argued cogently and consistently against a literalist interpretation of scripture. On the other hand, I'm sure you could find closet creationists in the Catholic Church today."

"Once an idea gets turned into a story, people pay attention long enough to listen. And they'll remember it. The images from Dante are far more vivid than the arguments of Aquinas."

"Even an atheist has to believe that the concept, at least, of "God" does exist, whether or not that concept is true or useful or the best way to approach things."

"Something like 10000 meteorites hit Earth a year. Three-quarters land in the ocean. Given how long they last, and how fast they come down, you might expect to see a meteorite roughly every two square kilometers. But in fact, you don't. They're completely lost."

"Science doesn't stop when it comes up with a nice answer. It looks for more data. It comes up with new ideas. It's willing to admit it's wrong."

"Science books go out of date. We throw the old one away when a newer one comes out, when we have new theories. But we don't throw away our old data; we merely interpret them differently. New theories try to account for old data (and new data) in new ways."

"One of the things that's just clearly evident is that we here in the U.S. are very special in having a developed country that sill has some amazingly dark skies especially in the western half of the United States. To find skies as dark as what we have out here, in say Europe for instance, you'd have to travel to far northern Scandinavia or you'd have to travel down to northern Africa, so we are very lucky here to have a wonderful transportation network as well as dark skies, so take that opportunity to go out and find those parks in the dark places of our country."

"If you want some adventure, if you want to work hard, if you want to do work with teams, if you want to see an idea from conception through its ultimate goal, science is a wonderful field to work in. It is highly rewarding."

"For more than sixty years after the publication of the Principia astronomers were puzzled to account for the motion of the lunar perigee, simply because they could not conceive that terms of the second and higher orders, with respect to the disturbing force, produced more than half of it. For a similar reason, the great inequalities of Jupiter and Saturn remained a long time unexplained."

"It was not until 1748 that any computation of the perturbations of Jupiter and Saturn, in accordance with the theory of gravitation, was undertaken. This was by . He appears to have limited himself to the terms which have the mean elongation of the planets of the planets from each other as their argument. Later the terms factored by the simple power of the eccentricities were added by himself, , , , and . But these terms not bringing about a reconciliation between observation and theory, and were led to make their notable researches on the possibility of secular equations in the mean motions of the planet. At length the whole difficulty with Jupiter and Saturn was removed by discovery of the great inequalities in 1786. almost immediately constructed tables which far exceeded in accuracy any previously possessed. They are those that appear in the third edition of Astronomie."

"The application of mathematics to the solution of the problems presented by the motion of the heavenly bodies has had a larger degree of success than the same application in the case of the other departments of physics. This is probably due to two causes. The principal objects to be treated in the former case are visible every clear night, consequently the questions connected with them received earlier attention; while, in the latter case, the phenomena to be discussed must ofttimes be produced by artificial means in the laboratory; and the discovery of certain classes of them, as, for instance, the property of magnetism, may justly be attributed to accident. A second cause is undoubtedly to be found in the fact that the application of quantitative reasoning to what is usually denominated as physics generally leads to a more difficult department of mathematics than in the case of the motion of the heavenly bodies. In the latter we have but one independent variable, the time; while in the former generally several are present, which makes the difference of having to integrate ordinary differential equations or those which are partial."

"In the papers published by Hill in the American Journal of Mathematics there is introduced for the first time a very radical and important idea. Up to this time the orbits of the moon and planets were considered as being ellipses which continually change. The problem was to find the changes in the ellipses, or the deviations from the initial ellipses. That is, the ellipse was taken as a first approximation to the orbit of the body under consideration. Hill proposed to take a certain simple type of periodic orbit as a first approximation. He proved the existence of the periodic orbits by numerically integrating the differential equations in numerous special cases by a process known as mechanical quadratures. These were the first periodic orbits of the problem of three bodies having a practical use, and the first ones known to exist beyond the simple ones which were discovered by Lagrange. It should be added that Hill omitted a small part of the disturbing action of the sun, viz., that which is said to depend upon the solar parallax; but his method would have applied without sensible modification to the rigorous problem. In fact, in all his researches, on the problem of three bodies, Darwin used methods which differ from those of Hill only in the variables employed and in inconsequential details."

"In our troubled days it is good to have something outside our planet, something fine and distant for comfort."

"Oh! Be A Fine Girl — Kiss Me!"

"A is just a pile of stuff."

"A park ranger once questioned the appropriateness of the telescopes, saying, "The sky is not a part of the park," to which Dobson replied, "No, but the park is part of the sky.""

"Can we, by now, square science with religion? In particular, can we square relativity and quantum mechanics with Swami Vivekananda's Advaita Vedanta? Since there cannot be two worlds - one for the scientists and one for the mystics - it must be that their descriptions are of the same world but from different points of view. Can we, from the vantage point of the Swami's Advaita (non-dualism), see both points of view? Swami Vivekananda said that science and religion would meet and shake hands. Can we see things from his vantage point? Since the notion of maya or apparition as the first cause of our physics is central to the swami's Advaita, I have chosen as "The Equations of Maya". Can we find them in our physics? According to the philosophy of the Advaita Vedantins, as the swami himself has said, there cannot be two existences, only one. And maya is, as it were, a veil or screen through which that oneness (the Absolute) is seen as this Universe of plurality and change.""

"The importance of a telescope is not how big it is, it's not how well made it is, it's how many people less fortunate than you got to look through it."

"In the absence of time we are left with the changeless, since change can take place only in time. And since smallness and dividedness can exist only in space, in the absence of space we are left with the infinite, the undivided."

"For many years Newton's view swept the field. But why don't corpuscles collide?"

"[A]t the hands of Huygens, Young, and Frensnel, Euler's notion that light might be a ... began to gain ground."

"But how could the ether be sufficiently rigid to transmit the vibrations at the speed of light and yet let the planets pass through it?"

"Then came Faraday... Space was filled with fields, and the fields were filled with energy. ...Maxwell suggested ...light was an electromagnetic wave... through the luminiferous ether."

"Then came Michelson and Morley. ...Then came Planck and Einstein. Light... was quantized... energy... Planck's constant times the (E=hv)."

"[S]peed of the photons... is independent of the observer's motion... So Einstein thought... who needs the ether? The photons, like fish out of water, were without the luminiferous ether..."

"Einstein put time into our geometry with space (where it belongs) so... "Matter tells space-time how to bend and space-time tells matter how to move" [Ref: Wheeler]. ...Swami Vivekananda ...suggested to Tesla ...winter ...1895-96 ...matter is ... (E=m). Matter is wound up against space-time and space-time is wound up against [matter]."

"In the four dimensional... space-time... separation between the emission... and the absorption events of the photons goes to zero, and even the fish are gone. ...What we see as a light-year away, we see as a year ago, because the time comes in squared with a minus sign."

"Energy is... the nature of... underlying existence showing through in space and time... it... remains constant."

"[O]nly the quality of the energy... usableness... gets degraded. ...[[Entropy (thermodynamics)|[E]ntropy]] is a measure of this ..."

"[T]he first and second laws of thermodynamics... laws doesn't mean edicts, but ally statements about how matter behaves. Physics is about how matter behaves... [[Entropy (thermodynamics)|[E]ntropy]] tends to go up."

"Negative entropy is a measure of the usableness of the energy. and the of large moving objects is completely usable. energy is not, because [of] the [scrambled] directions of... motions of... particles... That's... . ...[T]emperature is... kinetic energy of the molecules."

"When you panic stop... the of your... moving vehicle gets scrambled to heat by in... brake drums... brake shoes... tire[s] and road. ...[I]f, instead... the energy had been run into a ... you could... use... it to restart your car."

"[O]rganisms live in this cascade of increasing entropy by directing... the increase through their forms. ...[N]egative entropy is food."

"[F]ormation of galaxies and stars would [also]... be impossible except in this cascade of increasing entropy."

"Galaxies are formed when clouds of fall together... The clouds, unlike the stars, are large with respect to the spaces between them... So the [cloud] particles of each collide... and... scramble their motions to . ...energy of falling is transformed to heat. ...[T]he entropy has gone up."

"Stars are not hot because of ... [but] because [of]... energy of falling... transformed to . The heat [of]... fusion... keeps them from collapsing farther and... getting too hot. But it's... temporary."

"The observable Universe has a border... fifteen billion light years distant in all directions, imposed... by... "the expansion." ...At [the border distant objects] ...are estimated ...receding at the speed of light. ...[T]his apparent "expansion" ...imposes a border ...because things receding faster than ...light are not observable. ...[I]f the rate of expansion ...increased, the border would ...be closer."

"Radiation] of matter near the border... would be red-shifted (lowered in frequency)... But if the energy of the radiation of... particles is lowered, so too is the energy of the particles... and therefore also their . (...Einstein's 1905 equations ...)"

"[R]adiation... through a field of low-mass particles would be so often picked up and reradiated that it would be thermalized to 3° Kelvin and... appear as the background radiation discovered by Penzias and Wilson in 1965."

"[I]f the mass of the particles approaches zero, their must... approach zero... [B]y Heisenberg's uncertainty principle... if we... know the momentum... we cannot know that it's at the border... its position."

"[I]f the particles... recycle by "tunneling" back into the observable Universe as (with its ... restored)... the entropy of the... Universe might not increase."

"I like to make fun of the Big Bang. I'm allergic to the Big Bang."

"The Big Bang people wanted to get everything out of nothing. They want us to believe that nothing made everything out of nothing."

"You can't persuade a kid that nothing made everything out of nothing. ...It's impossible to get everything out of nothing."

"[E]ven if you did get nothing to make everything out of nothing, you still have the difficulty that it's in a black hole. Getting it out of a black hole is the second impossibility. We now have impossibility squared."

"[T]here's a 3rd impossibility. In order to get this stuff out of a black hole, it's going to come out half matter and half antimatter, because the... fireball has to be all , and when radiation cools off to material particles... 50/50 matter and antimatter. ...So now it's impossibility cubed. Do I need to any further?"

"[W]e used to consider that no matter how many evidences in favor of your model, [if] you have... one evidence against you, and you're dead."

"So I have to replace the Big Bang. ...[L]et's confine ourselves to the observational evidence, and since there is no observational evidence for Creation, we'll leave it out. Now that leaves out the Big Bang people, the mini bang people, the steady-state people, The people... almost everybody."

"So if we confine ourselves to the observational evidence... all those distant galaxies appear to be running away from us, and the farther away we look, the faster they appear to be running away... [A]lthough the simplest explanation is long ago there was this explosion... all we know is... the ... something that happens in radiation."

"But if you don't know about that... when a fire engine is coming toward you the bell has a high pitch, and when goes past you it goes away with a low pitch. Ding, ding, ding... The reason that it slurs like that, is because the fire engine missed you."

"So radiation does a similar thing. If something is coming toward you, the s are shifted toward the blue end of the spectrum. That's the high energy end of the spectrum, which corresponds to the high pitch of the bell on the fire engine... [W]hen it goes away, the radiation is shifted to the lower end... the red end of the spectrum. That's called ed."

"[W]hat we see... is that... the radiation from all those distant galaxies is redshifted, and the farther away they appear to be... the more redshifted... [T]he usual interpretation... is that they're going away. ...So that they would be approaching the speed of light ...at about 15 billion s away. About 15 billion light-years away... their radiation would go to zero energy because of redshifting."

"Now if we consider the region just... this side of where they would go to zero energy... we see... the redshift of the radiation means that the energy of the particles is extremely low. The way we find... the energy of a particle is... its radiation..."

"The reason we write equations... is because it's just as easy to translate them into Japanese, or Russian... German... French or English, and I'll translate them into English."

"S^2 = x^2 - t^2This is Einstein's 1905 geometry. All he noticed was that distances are not objective. How far it is from New York to Chicago depends on how fast you're going by when you look at it. And lengths of time are not objective. What you call a minute or an hour depends upon how fast you're going by when you look at the clock."

"Suppose we have two space ships [travelling opposite directions]... These people see those clocks [in the other spaceship] are spinning around too fast. These people [in the opposing spaceship] see those clocks [in the first spaceship] are spinning around too fast. After they've passed each other these people see those clocks have slowed down, and those people see those [other] clocks have slowed down. Now whose clocks have slowed down? There is no such thing as how fast a clock is going."

"I know. You'll say, "I'm going to go along with the damned clock. That's entirely arbitrary, and the rest of the universe is not going along with your damned clock anyway."

"Einstein knew that distances... and lengths of time are not objective, and he wanted to know what is objective. The S, this is objectiveS^2 = x^2 - t^2The spacetime separation between here-now and there-then is objective. The spacetime separation between two events, here-now and there-then. That's objective. So this [x] is the distance between here and there, and this [t] is the time between now and then."

"Now what Einstein's geometry pointed out is that the time comes in squared with a minus sign. ...[R]emember ...Euclid's geometry... every time you square something it's got a plus sign. No, it's got a minus sign. ...You have to subtract the time separation from the space separation, and if they're equal, this [S] goes to zero."

"[I]f a light beam can get from here-now to there-then, or from there-then to here-now, then the distance [x] between here and there is equal to the time [t] between now and then, and the total separation goes to zero."

"E = mNow this is E = m. You already heard it with the c^2 on there, but that's just how many s equals a . When Einstein found out they were measuring the same thing in grams as in ergs, he has to know how many ergs makes a gram, and an erg is the kinetic energy of a 2 gram beetle walking 1 centimeter per second and running into your shoe. ...The gram is the energy of the Hiroshima bomb, and he had to know how many beetles... to get rid of Berkeley. ...[T]hat's what the c^2 is all about, 9 times 10^{20}. ...The kinetic energy of 9 times 10^{20} 2 gram beetles walking 1 centimeter per second would vaporize Berkeley."

"E = mSo this... says that what we call matter, was just potential energy. Now we got both these [spacetime and energy equations] in 1905."

"\triangle x\;\triangle mv \ge \hbarThis we got from Heisenberg in 1927, but he blames it on Einstein. Heisenberg says, ....for more than three ...months they tried to describe the track of an electron across the , which they can see. They tried to describe it in quantum mechanics, and they couldn't ...These are the biggest shots in quantum mechanics, and they couldn't do it. Heisenberg, Bohr and Schrödinger... couldn't do it. ...[H]eisenberg said, then I remembered and suggested what Einstein had ...[said] earlier, "Theory must first say what can be observed" and when I looked at the problem from that side, I had the uncertainty relation."

"\triangle x\;\triangle mv \ge \hbarSo what this says is that the product of our uncertainty in where something is [\triangle x], and our uncertainty in what it's doing, [\triangle mv] its momentum, can never be less than this little guy [\hbar] whom we don't have to know anything about... because he doesn't get bigger or smaller... 2 doesn't get bigger or smaller and π doesn't get bigger or smaller in flat space. ...[W]hat this says is that our uncertainty here [\triangle x] multiplied by our uncertainty here [\triangle mv] cannot go to zero. ...Your uncertainty can't go to zero. ...So if you know where something is, you can't know what it's doing, and if you know what it's doing, you can't know where it's doing it. Ha! Ha! Ha! Ha!"

"Now back to the border... where the radiation as seen by us approaches zero. The energy of the particles approaches zero. If the energy of the particles approaches zero, [E = m] the mass of the particles approaches zero. If the mass of the particles approaches zero, [\triangle x\;\triangle mv \ge \hbar] the momentum of the particles approaches zero. The momentum is the mass multiplied by the velocity... If the momentum approaches zero, our uncertainty in the momentum approaches zero. You can't have a big mistake about nothing. ...If the uncertainty in the momentum approaches zero, the uncertainty in where they are [\triangle x] goes to totality, and they can recycle back anywhere. I don't see any way to avoid that, understanding physics the way we understand it now. You would have to change the physics to get out of the mess."

"So as I see it, the stuff recycles from the border."

"So there is this question which... everybody fails to ask me about it. How come it recycles as and not as iron? ...As seen by us, if the mass is going very very low, then the size of the particles has to get very big because things are wound up against electricity by being small, and if their size goes bigger then their mass goes down, or if their mass goes down, their size gets bigger. So way out there, as seen by us, the mass is going down, the sizes are getting bigger and the molecules can't hold together. The atoms can't hold together, and they come back as s and electrons."

"I'm going to give you my one-liner. The universe is made out of s and electrons. It talks French and knows how to spell it. I really don't think that people who believe in intelligent design have even smelled the problem. It's made out of protons and electrons, and it talks French and knows how to spell it."

"[W]hat is the evidence that it recycles from the border? There's a lot of evidence now. ...The Hubble telescope was asked to look to see about the between ... 3C 273 is a quasar... close enough to us so that the light reaches us... and can't get into the atmosphere, so we asked [the Hubble telescope] to look at it and see if there are any clouds of between 3C 273 and ourselves that are going away from us at different speeds... [T]he Hubble telescope said that there are a whole block of clouds of hydrogen between 3C 273 and ourselves going away at different speeds, and so each one makes a shadow in the spectra and there are a whole lot of shadows. That's called the Lyman-alpha forest. So that's an old piece of evidence, and the Hubble telescope also said that there's more than enough in the intergalactic voids to make all the known galaxies."

"[I]n recent times we found there's... dozens of galaxies that are only a few hundred million years old, and they couldn't possibly be as old as the Big Bang theory says they should be. ...So there's a lot of observational evidence... on my side that says no to the Big Bang model."

"There's another problem. The Big Bang people always thought that the background radiation that... Penzias and Wilson discovered in 1965 was the proof of their theory. Well, you can't prove a theory. You can disprove it, and it's been disproven several times."

"[H]ow do I get the background radiation? It turns out that way out near the border, where the mass of the particles is very low, all radiation going through a field of low mass particles gets so often picked up and re-radiated that it gets thermalized to 3°K. ...[T]he amount of 3K background radiation that we get in this model corresponds to what we measure, and the Big Bang gets about 1% of what they predict."

"The fun part is this. We have a rule against machines... because the entropy tends to a maximum. ...Entropy is a measure of the scrambledness of the energy... and it's easier to scramble an egg than to unscramble it. ...So the rule is that entropy, the scrambledness of the energy tends to go up, and does not tend to go down, and for that reason you can't have a perpetual motion machine that takes energy in a more scrambled state and runs it out in a less scrambled state. It always goes the other way. It gets it in a less scrambled state and dumps it out scrambled."

"[I]n my model the stuff recycles from the border as brand new spaced all out... and that's the lowest state of entropy known to man. Hydrogen all spaced out is the lowest state of entropy, and then it falls together by gravity and the entropy goes up, and all these other things happen and the entropy keeps going up and going up. ...[W]hen it recycles from the border the negative entropy is back in."

"Long ago there were some physicists who said that the whole universe was made out of energy. We Europeans were so retarded that we didn't notice... energy until 1845. But there were some physicists who... probably 5,000 years ago said the whole universe is made out of energy, and their name for the universe was... "the changing"... [T]hey said if the universe is the changing, there has to be something with respect to which it changes. So there has to be a changeless underneath, and if it's not in time it can't be in space, so it has to be changeless, infinite and undivided. Then their problem was, if what exists is changeless and what we see is changing, how the hell do you do that? ...[T]hey said it could only be by mistake. You can't change the changeless, but you could mistake the changeless for the changing. So they said, we'll have to study mistakes."

"In order to mistake one thing for another you have 3 things to do. ...[Y]ou have to fail to see what it was. That's the veiling power of your mistake. Then you have to jump to the conclusion that it was something else. That you do on your own hoofs. That's called the projecting power of the mistake. But... you had to see the thing in the first place, or you would have never made the mistake that way. In order to mistake your friend for a ghost, you had to see your friend. Your friend shows through in the ghost. So those old physicists said the changeless has to show through in our physics. That's inertia. The infinite has to show... That's the in the miniscule particles. And the undivided has to show... and that's why they all fall together by gravity."

"Now it's not as though we Europeans had another explanation for any of this. We don't! ...We have only an explanation of how things fall, not why they fall; and how they coast, not why they coast; and that they are made of electricity and not why they're made of electricity. Those old physicists had the why answer on this."

"So if you ask what's beyond the observable universe, and the observable universe... is due to a mistake... and you want to know what's beyond the mistake, it's the changeless, the infinite, the undivided."

"All we see is that things are moving away from each other, but if you see from the center of an observational universe, as seen by you they're going away from you. ...[R]edshift is not an actual thing. This is not an actual model of the universe. It's not a model of an actual universe, it's a model of an observational universe... [T]hat's the difference between this model and all of the other cosmological models. All the other cosmological models have taken the universe to be actual. What do we mean by actual? We mean that it arises by a process in physics. Since universes are fairly well known not to arise by processes in physics, I don't think that we have any actual universes. I think we're stuck with observational physics. I think this stuff that we wrote on the board is about an observational universe, not about an actual universe."

"I asked 3 astronomers in the last 25 or 30 years... When a cluster of stars is formed out of a cloud of dusty , what proportion of this stuff makes into the stars, and what proportion is blown away by the stellar wind? ...[T]he first 2 ...said they don't have an immediate answer... but they thought that between 1 and 10% would make it into the stars, and between 90 and 99% would be blown away. ...[T]he 3rd man ...in more recent time ...said 95% ...is blown away, and in some cases more and in some cases less. So... what is all this ? It's blown away from when the stars were formed. ...[W]hen a galaxy is formed, it's just a cluster of stars and 99 or 95%... of this stuff is going to be blown away. Now that's what we see. Vera Rubin measured this for ... around it is all the rest of this stuff which is 10 times as much as we see in the galaxy... So the is perfectly ordinary matter..."

"[I]n recent times we've discovered... that about 1/2 of the neutron stars that we know about have from the galaxy. ...Now these are neutron stars with a density of 100,000 battle ships in a one pint jar, and they're about 10 or 12 miles in diameter and they weigh a hell of a lot, and they're leaving the galaxy, and they're , and they're too bloody small for you to find. ...They're not going to shine for you."

"I think that the is ordinary matter. I don't think we need any fancy stuff like the Big Bang people need. The Big Bang people needed all that fancy stuff because their inflationary models said that it has to be in there... [T]hen they ran into this difficulty... If there's all that extra stuff in here, out of which and could be made, then the Big Bang model is wrong. ...If all this extra matter is ordinary matter, then the helium abundance is not ok for the Big Bang model! So then they had to invent that this dark matter responds only to gravity. I was having dinner with a physicist... I said in that case why didn't it fall into the galaxy? ...[H]e said, "It can't fall into anything without getting rid of its gravitational energy, and it has no way to do that." So what's the use of the dark matter? It can't do anything. ...[T]hat's the problem with the dark matter..."

"[T]he dark matter that they invented said that the universe should be not expanding so fast. ...So then they had to invent the to make it speed up. ...[I]f you want to invent all these things you can get out of any model."

"One of the troubles of the Big Bang is they invented the initial conditions so that it would come out like this. Well, that's not usually the name of the game. ...You're supposed to look to see what the initial ingredients might have been. ...I don't take seriously dark energy and dark matter. Dark matter, as I see it... we already know that we see only a little bit of the universe that's out there. Vera Rubin measured it a long time ago. We know where it is, and I have a good idea what it is."

"I have a feeling... that the physicists are going to have to learn to read, because the... physicists have taught... that thisE = mmeans that matter can be converted to energy... and that's not this equation. That would be E + m = \text{a concept}. If mass goes down the energy goes up. If the energy goes down, the mass goes up. There's only one way to write that E + m = k, and that's not Einstein's equation... and Einstein never took it the other way. He always took it the way he wrote it. ...I don't think he ever saw how it was taught in school. If you were teaching... and Einstein is visiting... are you going to talk relativity?"

"Einstein never changed it, the way he put it in his words. He said toward the end of his life, ..."Matter had fallen out of the physics... as a fundamental concept." We're left only with energy. ...That's going to have to be cleaned up. The physicists can't be this retarded permanently."

"S^2 = x^2 - t^2S is zero only if x is equal to t. If x is equal to t then S is always zero. ...[O]ur evidence that the universe is out there and inde-god damned-pendent of us, is that we look out there and see it... [T]he equation says that... the separation of every event that you've seen... and your seeing of that event has always been zero. ...[W]e knew it was like that when we're dreaming. We didn't know that it's better than that when we're awake."

"I'm not responsible for any of those equations. ...I'm just your tour guide."

"I give these talks in Hollywood... at the church in the Vedanta center... There are all these monks lying around and... people ask me questions... So I tell them, "I'm just your tour guide. I'm here to tell you where you are and how you got here. If you want to get out, talk to the people in orange.""

"[T]he way I understand it from those old physicists is that there's something underneath which we didn't notice, and... they said... they have an answer for why inertia shows, why gravity shows, why electricity shows. We have no answer at Caltech. We know how things fall... how they coast... how they're electrical. We don't know why. ...[T]hose old physicists gave us a way of looking at this thing that says why. If you mistake one thing for another, the one thing has to show, and they said what's underneath has to be changeless, infinite and undivided... [T]he... [unchanging] that shows through is inertia, the infinite is the electrical energy and... gravity is the undivided showing through."

"It shows through in us too. Everybody runs after peace and security. That's running after the changeless. Everybody runs after freedom. That's running after the infinite, and everybody runs after happiness. We all get married and have children... and you're restricted to the pursuit of happiness, not to its attainment. It's written."

"[I]f this whole thing is due to a mistake, there's a reason why it's made out of frustration. ...My model says that the universe is going to be made out of frustration."

"I was asked to give a talk... [by] the lady at the pretzel farm in Sierra... You understand a pretzel farm, where all those folded s are? ...[T]he lady ...asked me to give a talk on frustration. ...I said I was walking down through ... in Los Angeles in the winter... the rainy season, and there's this little stream of water coming along beside me... I was thinking that the poets say it will be happy when it reaches the sea. But the poets are wrong... The sea is trying desperately to get to the center of the earth, and the rocks are in the way, and it gets frustrated. ...So the rocks are trying desperately to get to the center of the earth, and the iron of the earth's core is in the way, and the rocks get frustrated. And the iron at the earth's core is trying desperately to fall into the sun, and its inertia is in the way, and it goes round and round... 18 miles a second, and it gets frustrated. And the sun is trying desperately to get to the center of the galaxy, and its inertia, the way it goes around 150 miles a second, and it gets frustrated. And the galaxy has been trying to merge with all the rest of the matter of the observable universe, but the expansion is in the way, and it gets frustrated. And the expansion has been trying to reduce the density of the universe, but the recycling is in the way, and it gets frustrated."

"Now if the universe weren't made out of frustration, it couldn't go on like this. Cheer up. There's no way out of it."

"[T]here's nothing invariant about how it [the universe] looks to all of us. There are a lot of us and it looks different to a whole bunch of us... But if you ask... the fundamental questions what's underneath, then I think it comes out the same. ...[T]he changeless, the infinite and the undivided, and if there's no other way to do this except making mistakes, but you're not required to make a mistake. I think it's time to fire me."

"I didn't create a telescope. ...I'm famous for being too retarded to make an . You're supposed to do something to get famous for it! But we... weren't going to do photography. We just wanted to see what's out there and we made a 24 incher, that's more than 13 foot , and we've run it for more than 80,000 miles in the public parks and in Indian reservations, up to Canada and down to Mexico. But we weren't going to do photography. We din't need to track things across the sky, so we never did all that. ...So the people who need to be blamed are the people who invented those equatorial mounts. You should get on their case, not mine, because that's an invention. What we did is not an invention."

"They were going to give me an award for public service in astronomy in the East Bay Astronomical Society, so... they sweet talk you in front of the crowd: "The Dobsonian Revolution..." So I got up and said, "All the previous revolutions were run with the cannons on Dobsonian mounts!""

"We were in the monastary and it must have been in our curriculum to grind telescope mirrors, and these were just gallon jug bottoms, just little 5 1/2 incher things, and I was doing them under water so as not to make a stir... but we had enough stir anyway."

"Why would I need a newer type telescope. Our older type telescopes do everything I need... There are a lot of people who like to invent... harder ways to do things. I let them do it."

"It's high time... that the amateurs did something else besides taking pictures with those 4 and 6 inchers, and looking at the pictures in the daytime with their s. They're not going to see them with their cone cells through the telescope. They're going to see them with their s, and the rod cells are wired the wrong way. For this whole bunch of cells there is only one wire to the brain, and for this whole bunch [in the other eye] there's only one wire to the brain. So your resolution is between this bunch and this bunch... so if you want to see what those pictures look like, take them in the closet and turn out the light, and damn it all, they look just like what you see through the eyepiece. Don't think I don't do all these things. I do."

"It's virtually impossible to entertain me at a . I've had to aim that [24 inch] telescope for the public for... a lot... 4,000 nights... so I've seen most of those things from 7 to 10 thousand feet through a 24 incher... and my eyes are no longer as young as they used to be."

"I used to be able to see the middle star in the through our 24 incher. So we were up on 5,000 ft in the Sierra and there was this young lady and... I noticed her pupils were very big, so I asked her to... see if she could see the central star... So she calls out there are two stars inside and there are two... in the nebulosity, and she calls out the . That's all you see through the 120... [I]t makes a lot of difference what's between your eyepiece and your brain... and I don't have very good eyes."

"When I was in Boston when... 3 years old, some big kid rubbed mud in my eyes till it was behind the eyeballs, and the doctors thought I would be blind. Mother said it took one whole week for the mud to ooze out from underneath my eyeballs. ...So I don't have a straight horizon in my right eye, but my brain reads my left eye. ...I've had 87 years to get used to it, and my brain knows which eye to read. ...But if I'm not careful, I can see, once in a while, this picture intrude ..."

"If the amateurs don't get their telescopes out for the public, nobody will! The professionals make telescopes for the professionals. We sidewalk astronomers make telescopes for the rest of you."

"I was in ... and they've had star parties on the dark of the moon... probably for 100 years... Run off to the wilderness with their telescopes so they can lick their chops and go to bed. And now on the next week, when there is a quarter moon, they have a public star party in the old in Seattle, and they blame that one on me. But they get quite a number of telescopes... and several hundred people looking... A lot of amateurs do this kind of thing now. We sidewalk astronomers used to do it on every clear night, but... I can't do that any more. They run me all over the place in a plane."

"[Y]ou need to make telescopes so you can see what's going on out there. You can't see it any other way. Watching TV doesn't do it. They get all mixed up when they run the TV, and they get you all mixed up if you're not careful."

"A specific type of Alt-Az mount is called a Dobsonian mount, named after John Dobson... a cofounder of the San Francisco Sidewalk Astronomers in 1967 and an avid promoter of bringing the wonders of astronomy to the people. ...The Dobsonian mount is simple (two basic pieces - tube and base), stable, and low cost."

"[A] side to Dobson’s work that makes... scientists, uncomfortable."

"Dobson believes scientists are making a mistake by limiting themselves to conventional measurements of space and time. Such... he insists, have hit a roadblock. Researchers should, he says, add philosophy and metaphysics into their equations."

"Dobson tried this argument out on the physics department at , referring to his model of the universe... "I’ll admit... this is way out in left field." ...[P]rofessors and students fidgeted through the lecture. Several walked out... Afterward came... "What you’re talking about isn’t physics." "Nobody is going to listen... until you can come up with... numbers.""

"He is portrayed as a galactic Pied Piper, luring followers with enthusiasm and charm, coaxing them on a journey to the heavens."

"Dobson’s original design is fundamentally excellent. What I have done is taken Dobson’s concepts and tried to realize their full potential."

"Dobson is a visionary. With his home-built telescopes, he smashed traditional "small" expectations for amateur instruments. ...John Dobson pointed the way to today’s dream telescopes."

"The true Dobsonian—the telescope held by friction alone—was invented by John Lowry Dobson. Born in China in 1915 to missionary parents, it fell to Dobson to reduce the alt-azimuth telescope to its essentials. ...[H]is family returned to San Francisco in 1927."

"[A] lecture by changed the direction of young Dobson’s life, sending him on a quest for "the reality behind the universe" under the Swami’s instruction. The Swami advised returning to school, and in 1943, Dobson graduated with degrees in chemistry and mathematics. He immediately found work at Berkeley, later transferring to Caltech and then to the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory."

"In 1944, Dobson quit his job and entered a monastery as a monk of the . At the monastery, Swami Ashokananda assigned him the task of uniting the ancient thinking of India with and astronomy... that deal most closely with the "first cause" of the universe."

"In 1956, Dobson built his first telescope. The mirror was made from a 12inch disk of glass using the instructions found in Allyn Thompson's Making Your Own Telescope. The sight of the moon through this instrument helped him decide that everyone in the world had to see the heavens through a telescope."

"In 1958, Dobson was transferred to the ’s monastery in Sacramento, where he... surreptitiously built telescopes... At night Dobson trundled his reflectors... around the... neighborhood and taught local children... to build telescopes. But monastery rules forbade leaving the monastery... without permission, and in 1967, after 23 years... Dobson was expelled. ...[H]e had constructed fifteen 12-inch and two 18-inch telescopes from scavenged junk."

"Dobson returned to San Francisco... [E]very clear night, he rolled his 12-inch Stellatrope to the corner... and showed the heavens to anyone who would look. One... passersby... arranged for him to begin teaching telescope making and astronomy at the Jewish Community Center, and later at the and the ."

"[T]wo... friends insisted... he join them in forming... the San Francisco Sidewalk Astronomers. This club met at [Dobson's same corner] and brought telescopes... During the 70s and 80s, the[y] toured national parks... showing tens of thousands... their universe..."

"Big, thin mirrors, the sling support, Teflon-on-Formica bearings, and the practical alt-azimuth mount are Dobson’s contributions."

"Nearly a million people have looked through Dobson's telescopes, which he constructs from castoff pieces of plywood... scraps of two-by-fours, cardboard centers of hose reels, chunks of cereal boxes and s from old ships."

"Says legendary comet-hunter David Levy, borrowing... from Bob Summerfield... of Astronomy To Go, a traveling star lab: "Newton made telescopes for astronomers to observe the universe; John Dobson makes telescopes for the rest of us.""

"Dobson's invention is... a system of making and mounting one. {...he uses the same type of reflecting telescope devised by Sir Isaac Newton ...) Dobson's mirrors are thin, light and cheap... made from the bottoms of glass gallon jugs instead of optical glass. ...[H]is mount that made weights unnecessary. Where an eight-inch amateur telescope with accessor[ies]... can cost $2,400, a basic eight-inch... can be made... for $200."

"Love is the ultimate thing, I want that to be the connection between everything I do: science, art, or otherwise."

"I paint mostly black people because I am black...I think it’s a cultural crisis in America, how people see themselves, and I think that should be an ambition in any art form to uplift people in some way."

"It’s the strangeness of the universe that has always been my favorite part of physics."

"Astronomers are masters of light; light we can see and most of which we can’t see."

"Pursue your love. Stay hopeful. You’re needed. (Responding to the question "If there was a word you could give to other young people of color who want to be scientists, what would you tell them?")"

"I grew up in an environment where love for my people and for our culture was expressed all around me. I was raised to identify with Black people around the globe."

"Astronomers are experts on understanding what light is. We can’t touch or sense most of the objects that we study, other than from the light that we receive from them."

"Everyone’s captivated by astronomy, by the stars, what’s out there in the universe...And so I made a conscious choice a long time ago that I wanted to share my work with the community, with Black folks and other people of color, especially."

"One strong motivation [for painting portraits] has been wanting to portray Black people in all the beauty that I see in them...I take a lot of joy in that."

"It’s frustrating for me, when people just talk about things at a superficial level and then try to solve the problem through diversity programs."

"We can never make assumptions about the entire universe based on what’s happening in our own backyard...we don’t want to have a theory of star formation just for the Milky Way — we want a universal theory."

"We know that molecular clouds are elaborate, and that their complex geometry is tied to star formation. But the images we have of them are flat — they’re inherently two-dimensional."

"Imagination is a huge part of what it means to do science, and I often imagine what it would be like to be up close to these environments."

"... part of the challenge with astronomy is that images are inherently flat... 3-D models uniquely tap into the human brain’s ability to detect patterns. And so that was the idea behind the 3D printing was to have a new way of visualizing stellar nurseries — visual."

"Now, most astronomers hate dust; dust can dim the light from background stars and galaxies that we're trying to observe. But I love dust. Stellar nurseries are dusty. And we can use our knowledge of dust to understand the structure of molecular clouds. Stellar nurseries are threaded by these long, dense noodlelike structures called filaments. Embedded within filaments are these compact knots of gas called cores — the final stage before star formation."

"The link between art and science for me is my love of color and my love of light."

"We talk about how diversity will open up new possibilities, and she’s a prime example of that. She thinks of stuff that no one has done and does it—pulls it off."

"The Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite, under study by NASA since 1976, will map the spectrum and the angular distribution of diffuse radiation from the universe over the entire wavelength range from 1 micron to 1.3 cm. It carries three instruments: a set of differential s (DMR) at 23.5, 31.4, 53, and 90 , a far infrared absolute (FIRAS) covering 1 to 100 cm-1, and a covering 1 to 300 s. They will use the ideal space environment, a one year lifetime, and standard instrument techniques to achieve orders of magnitude improvements in sensitivity and accuracy, providing a fundamental data base for cosmology. The instruments are united by common purpose as well as similar environmental and orbital requirements. The data from all three experiments will be analyzed together, to distinguish nearby sources of radiation from the cosmologically interesting diffuse background radiations."

"NASA’s Cosmic Background Explorer satellite mission, the COBE, laid the foundations for modern cosmology by measuring the spectrum and anisotropy of the and discovering the . ... The COBE observed the universe on the largest scales possible by mapping the cosmic microwave and infrared background radiation fields and determining their spectra. It produced conclusive evidence that the hot Big Bang theory of the early universe is correct, showed that the early universe was very uniform but not perfectly so, and that the total luminosity of post–Big Bang objects is twice as great as previously believed."

"… the technical question was, “Is the Big Bang the right story? Is the expanding universe the right story?” And there are a lot of sub-questions in that. If it is the right story, then how did the galaxies come? Where did they come from? Because it seemed quite mysterious. People were just beginning to realize that there was a structure that had been seen in the maps of where the galaxies are located, and that we had no clue what made that happen. So what is there to measure? Well, there’s not very many things to measure. You can measure the galaxies or you can look for this cosmic background radiation. And if you could measure it, it would tell you something that you never knew before."

"We are so far from being able to move a good fraction of the population anywhere else. Even if Elon Musk and other private individuals manage to start sending humans to Mars, we may be a few hundred years away from putting any sizable population there—and we have to fix Earth right now. Eventually, if we’ve been irresponsible enough to create problems in our world, moving to a new one won’t necessarily solve the problem because we might do the same thing in the future."

"Looking from the astrobiology perspectives, life on Earth started early—just about as soon as it could. The more we learn about the origin of life, the more we realize it may be a likely outcome any time you have the right ingredients. However, if you look at the history of life on Earth, let’s say you put it on a twelve-hour clock, up until four o’clock it was just a world of microorganisms, from four to five o’clock that’s the era of plants coming onto land and animals and creatures in the sea, then after five o’clock until about ten o’clock this will be a world of only microorganisms again. So, in fact, our planet is in its late middle ages in terms of life on the surface. Then from ten o’clock until about midnight, the world will be completely desolate, devoid of life as the sun is running out of its nuclear fuel in the center and its outer atmosphere is expanding. The point is that our world has had big life for only a small slice of its existence and the portion of that which has had technology is even smaller. I think life is presumably abundant everywhere; the most common form is likely going to be microbial life. In addition, the distances are so vast that unless other civilizations have developed both a means of crossing those distances quickly and the desire to do so, plus the energy capability, I don’t know if we’ll see alien intelligence in our lifetime."

"was established and equipped at the opening of the college in 1865. The has an of 12⅓ inches aperture and a focal length of 16¾ feet. It was originally made by }} of New York, but in 1872 the glass was re-cut by }}, and in 1888 the telescope was re-mounted by & }}. It was also at that time provided with electrical illumination for the . The magnifying powers, negative and positive, range from 150 to 600. A made by }} was added in 1890. This spectroscope has a prism for star spectra and a }} grating for the solar spectrum. There is also a }} direct-vision spectroscope. The has an objective aperture of 3¾ inches. It was made by }} of Philadelphia. In 1889 it was re-mounted by }}. The clock and chronograph are of }} manufacture."

"Firstly, we wish to know whence comes the comet and whither it goes. We wish to follow its path, as it sweeps its way through our solar system. As this orbit is controlled by the same law of gravity which controls all celestial motion, an exact knowledge of a comet's course among the planets, gives the basis of investigation regarding its relation to the solar system and to the realms of space beyond. Therefore one important line of investigation is the determination of the positions of the comet in the sky, from whence may be obtained its orbit in space. Secondly, the astronomer wished to know what are the nature and constitution of comets. The investigation of this question is of comparatively recent origin, and belongs to ."

"... Suppose a large number of values, subject to variations on either side of a , and suppose these variations bound by no common law. Then, if a sufficiently large number of such values are taken into consideration, it will be found that the variations on either side of the mean value will counterbalance one another. If, then, we regard the absolute motions of the stars as subject to no common law, i.e., if we suppose the stars to be pursuing their courses independent of any common , and if a very large number of s are taken together, if would follow from this principle, that in the aggregate the peculiar proper motions would cancel one another, and the mean result would be unaffected by them and would give only the . This method of treatment, based upon the , is called the method of "," and is of wide application ..."

"Although banquets at professional meetings (like the chemists' "misogynists' dinner" of 1880) had long excluded women, the ban began to seem a little less intimidating around 1900, when several women scientists began in their own quiet way to challenge some of these age-old restrictions. Thus, for example, Mary Whitney of Vassar College, who had attended the founding meeting of the American Astronomical Society at in Wisconsin in 1899 with her protégée and successor, , was still not sure whether they would be welcome at the society's banquet in Washington, D.C., in 1902. President noticed her unease and wrote to assure her that they were indeed expected to attend ... Newcomb's encouragement induced these women to go, and thereby set a precedent for later meetings."

"At the present time we employ a for making certain observations which can best be made then, and for other work which is not possible at another time. The most important work, and one which demands the coöperation of at widely distant places, is the observation of s. These occur at other times, but only the brighter stars can be followed to the and such stars are not frequent in its path. During an eclipse, however, stars down to the eleventh are easily followed until they disappear, and any star whose position is accurately determned is available. If an Observatory has undertaken the investigation of the Moon's place, it takes advantage of a total eclipse and prepares a list of stars which are to be occulted at other distant observatoreis, and sends a circular requesting observations. Such a circular was issued by the , Russia, for the eclipse of March 10th. The time of an occultation is much less difficult to determine than a contact of an eclipse. The Moon has no atmosphere, so that the star disappears instantaneously."

"did not accept the but evolved one of his own in which he makes the planets revolve about the Sun, but the Sun carries them with itself about the Earth. Part of his observations he reduced himself, publishing among other things a book on the , one on comets, and one on the lunar theory, and an important star catalogue. He had planned several other valuable works, but his early death cut short his projects. He was the first to perceive the importance of applying refraction to observations. He improved the values of the Sun's and Moon's , he discovered two variations in the Moon's longitude in addition to those already known, and one in latitude. In short he improved many values which depended on accurate observation for their determination."

"A is one that undergoes a change in brightness. With some stars the change is as great as four or even six , while with others it may be only one magnitude, and in some cases as small as half a magnitude. This change in brightness is observed by comparing the light of the variable with the light of some standard star which is assumed to be constant in brightness, the comparison being made either directly, or through the medium of some sort of artificial star."

"At the we met , the Director, but were especially pleased to see who had made suck a name for herself by her work on . She was in charge of the reduction of the Paris astrographic plates, and we were interested to compare her computing bureau with the one at . She offered to escort us to to visit the venerable , and invitation which we were delighted to accept. We were charmed with picturesque dwelling, made from the stables of the old chateau, with its low-ceiled rooms and quaint winding passages. They made a fascinating setting for the indomitable old Frenchman, who in spite of his eighty years, was planning to make another ascent of that summer, even if he had to be carried to the summit in a chair. He also asked many questions about the college in America where young girls studied mathematical astronomy."

"Mary Whitney … established a student-based research program at Vassar, focusing on observations of comets, s, and, after , on s. … In 1906 she developed an undergraduate course on variable stars, probably the first in the world, on which Caroline Furness based her 1915 textbook."

"After completing her A.B. and A.M. degrees as a student of astronomer Mary Whitney at Vassar College, Caroline Furness became the first woman to earn a Ph.D. in astronomy at (1900). She collaborated with Whitney as her assistant between 1909 and 1911, each sending their variable star observations to . A member of the from 1911, Furness succeeded Whitney in 1913, and prepared for publication a volume of variable star observations made at Vassar from 1901 to 1912. In 1915 she authored the well-received An Introduction to the Study of Variable Stars."

"The rich variety of stars live in our Galaxy mostly singly or in pairs ... Sometimes, however, hundreds or thousands of stars can be found in loose groups called s. The is a daily young open closer, and the which surrounds the famous "seven sisters" of this cluster attests to the fact that these stars must only recently have been born out of the surrounding gas and dust. The oldest stars in our Galaxy are found in tighter groups called s. Rich globular clusters may contain more than a million members."

"The revealed the to have an unexpected richness of structure. Many of the observed features have now been identified as collective effects arising from the of the ring material. These effects include , the main topics of this review chapter. Both kinds of waves were first discussed in the astronomical literature in connection with the dynamics and structure of , and our discussion contrasts the similarities and differences between the and s. After developing the theory of free and forced waves of both types, we discuss how the observed waves can be used as diagnostics to obtain crucial parameters that characterize the physical state of the rings."

"have played a prominent role in astronomical thought since the discovery by in 1845 of the spiral structure of the ... Through the work of , , , and especially Hubble, by the late 1920s, it became known, and not just speculated, that such spirals were disk-like stellar systems coequal to our own Milky Way system. From the optical study of the kinematics of stars in the solar neighborhood, (1927) and Jan Oort (1927) deduced that the flattening of the galactic disk is due to rotation, and that this rotation occurred differentially, with the stars near the galactic center taking less time to go once around the center than the material farther out."

"I think . I never would have guessed it. Even as an undergraduate, once I’d learned a little physics, I would have thought that the universe was eternal, static, and always in equilibrium. So in graduate school when I found out that the universe was expanding, I was awestruck. Then I learned if we could measure the expanding universe, the way we record the growth of a child with marks on a doorframe ... , we could determine the age of the universe and predict its ultimate fate. This was staggering! I knew this is what I wanted to do. Since that time, charting the expanding universe to determine its nature has been my passion. Though I have to add: knowing what I know now, that the , I feel like King Alfonso X of Castile who saw Ptolemy’s and reportedly said “If the Lord Almighty had consulted me before embarking on creation thus, I should have recommended something simpler.”"

"Today we are able to make very precise measurements of the by measuring the distances and s of . The shift in a supernova’s due to the expansion of space gives its redshift (z) and the relation between redshift and distance is used to determine the expansion rate of the universe. Supernovae with greater redshifts, lying at greater distances, reveal the past expansion rate as their light was emitted at an epoch when the universe was younger. Supernovae Type Ia were the suitable candidate for these measurements as you need objects that are very luminous (thus can be observed even when they are very far) and highly uniform (so that intrinsic scatter doesn't blur the signal). Supernovae Type Ia are the most luminous of the common supernova types, peaking at 4 billion , and thus allowing us to look at extreme large distances."

"is about the gravity of empty space, the gravity of the vacuum. And the vacuum is a concept that we address in and quantum mechanics. Quantum mechanics is physics on microscopic scales, while Einstein's theory of general relativity ... is physics on macroscopic scales. These two theories are both great, but they don't work together. We don't have what's called a quantum theory of gravity, the way the two are united. However, dark energy actually requires you to use both of these branches of physics. So our hope is that by observing how the universe actually does physics at that interface, we will learn how to unify those."

"Less than a century ago we had no idea that there was more to the universe than our own Milky Way. the immense size of the universe, the fact that it is expanding, the fact that it is populated with such things as – all this and more had to be discovered before we could do the work that led us to contemplate an ."

"Not only does it swallow anything that comes too near it but no one lives to tell the tale ... there are footprints leading in, and no footprints leading out ... If black holes weren’t real, I think the science-fiction writers would have wanted to invent them."

"Having that bit of diabolical contrariness is a weird pleasure of being a scientist. You’re always trying to figure out, “OK, how could I be fooling myself into a wrong conclusion?” Because the more you get those things right, the more chances you have of catching the universe doing something that our brains never would’ve imagined. Scientists build out of what seems like a stance of weakness. So, one might think it’s terrible that scientists are always discovering new ways that they’re wrong, or it’s terrible that they’re only probabilistically sure of facts. But that’s really where scientists’ superpower has come from. We have been able to figure out amazing solutions to problems or surprises about the world. Much of that can be traced back to being willing to be wrong and being comfortable with finding the ways you’re wrong. And for this purpose, you want to build strong relationships with people who are going to tell you when you’re wrong, who will disagree with you, or who compete with you. They’re your best bet at figuring out where you’re making a mistake."

"As we discover , we suffer from a variety of s, both in our nearby and distant searches. The most significant effect is – a selection effect which leads brightness limited searches finding brighter than average objects near their sensitivity limit. This bias is caused by the larger volume in which bright objects can be uncovered compared to their fainter counterparts. Malmquist bias errors are proportional to the square of the intrinsic dispersion of the distance method, and because SN Ia are such accurate distance indicators, these errors are quite small – approximately 2%. We use s to estimate these effects, and remove their effects from our s."

"With the as an anchor, theory converged on a standard model of the universe, which was still in place in 1998, at the time of our discovery of the . This standard model was based on the theory of general relativity, and two assumptions. assumption one was that the , and assumption two that it is composed of normal , i.e. matter whose density falls directly in proportion to the volume of space, which it occupies. Within this framework, it was possible to devise observational tests of the overall theory, as well as provide values for the fundamental constants within this model – the current expansion rate (), and the average density of matter in the universe. For this model, it was also possible to directly relate the density of the universe to the rate of cosmic deceleration and the geometry of space. it stated that the more material the faster the deceleration, that above a critical density the universe has a and below this a ."

"… one does not expect a . To my mind, I was genuinely surprised because when you make a discovery of acceleration–well, what causes the acceleration? Well, we give it a name–'–but we don’t understand it yet. I would not be surprised if we don’t understand it during my lifetime. Without understanding it, I felt it wouldn’t be worthy of a Nobel Prize. The fact that it was given pretty timely–you know, I was only 44 last year–was a bit of surprise."

"# Science is constantly, systematically and inexorably revisionary. It is a self-correcting process and one that is self-destroying of its own errors..."

"# A related trait of science is its destruction of idols, destruction of the gods men live by... Science has no absolute right or absolute justice... To live comfortably with science it is necessary to live with a dynamically changing system of concepts... it has a way of weakening old and respected bonds..."

"# Not only are the tenets of science constantly subject to challenge and revision, but its prophets are under challenge too..."

"# Further, the findings of science have an embarrassing way of turning out to be relevant to the customs and to the civil laws of men—requiring these customs and laws also to be revised..."

"# Certainly we have seen spectacular changes in the concept of private property and of national borders as we have moved into the space age..."

"# Moreover, the pace of technological advance gravely threatens the bountiful and restorative power of nature to resist modification..."

"# Another trait of science that leads to much hostility or misunderstanding by the non-scientist is the fact that science is practiced by a small elite... (which) has cultural patterns discernibly different from those of the rest of society..."

"# The trait that to me seems the most socially important about science, however, is that it is a major source of man's discontent with the status quo..."

"There are in astronomy refinements of method, both practical and theoretical, which can be appreciated only by rare gifts and profound study. But the elementary methods are quite within the reach of ordinary minds. The , which it was difficult to discover, may be very easily understood and its results readily traced. It might require a Newton or a La Place to unveil the mechanism of the heavens, but when that is once done every beholder may watch the wonderful evolutions."

"The , no less than the severest utilitarian, rejoices in every contribution of science to the arts, but he does not admit that the whole value of science is to be measured by any present applications. He puts in a demurrer to the conclusion that those portions of it are useless of which we do not see the utility. The use may be beyond our present sphere of vision, or, if coming within our cognizance, it may not admit of comparison with any standard of measure. Unlike the precious gem, which has an exchangeable but no intrinsic value, science bears no price in the market. It transcends all ideas of comparison and exchange. Its high utility lies in the breadth and dignity and sublime grandeur which it gives to the human mind."

"Dr. Caswell’s predilection was for and astronomy. During the period of twenty-eight and a half years (from December, 1831, to May, 1860) he made, with few interruptions, a regular series of meteorological observations at the same spot on . These observations, precise as regards temperature and pressure, and including also much information on winds, clouds, moisture, rain, storms, the , &c, have been published in detail in Vol. XII of the "Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge," and fill 179 quarto pages. Dr. Caswell continued his observations in meteorology with unabated zeal to the end of 1876, covering, in all, the long period of forty-five years."

"The , which measures the , together with the total energy density of the Universe, sets the size of the observable Universe, its age, and its radius of curvature. Excellent progress has been made recently toward the measurement of the Hubble constant: a number of different methods for measuring distances have been developed and refined, and a primary project of the has been the accurate calibration of this difficult-to-measure parameter. The recent progress in these measurements is summarized, and areas where further work is needed are discussed. Currently, for a wide range of possible s, the Universe appears to have a . Combined with current estimates of stellar ages, the results favor a . They are consistent with either an , or a with a non-zero value of the ."

"We are at an interesting juncture in cosmology. With new methods and technology, the accuracy in measurement of the has vastly improved, but a recent tension has arisen that is either signaling or as-yet unrecognized uncertainties. Just under a century ago, Edwin Hubble revolutionized cosmology with his discovery that the . Hubble found a relationship between radial velocity and the distance to nearby galaxies, determining the proportionality constant Ho (=v/r), that now bears his name. The Hubble constant remains one of the most important parameters in cosmology. An accurate value of Ho can provide a powerful constraint on the cosmological model describing the evolution of the universe. In addition, it characterizes the expansion rate of the Universe at the current time, defines the observable size of the Universe, and its inverse sets the ."

"... after finishing my postdoc, I became a faculty member at , and then ended up being the scientific leader of this project to measure the rate at which the universe is expanding. ... when that project finished, .. we .. resolved the issue. We went from a factor of 2 uncertainty — we measured an uncertainty of 10%."

"Mainstream geology is founded upon enunciated by James Hutton (1726–1797) and Charles Lyell (1797–1875), who argued that, during unlimited expanses of time, the Earth has undergone slow, ceaseless change by processes we can observe in operation. In their view, we cannot call on any powers that are not natural to the globe, admit of any action of which we do not know the principle, nor allege extraordinary events to explain a common appearance. A , originating from outside the Earth, and wreaking change instantaneously. Such a process violates every tenet of uniformitarianism. Largely for this reason, hypotheses of impact origin for craters on the Earth and the moon were vigorously opposed for the better part of the past century. Space-age research now has established beyond doubt the authenticity of impact as a geologic process, but an abundance of evidence exists that a wide chasm still persists between the views of impact specialists and those of terrestrial geologists. A full realization of the ramifications of impact processes may have been delayed by the advent of , which engulfed the geological community in the late 1960s. Revolutionary as it appeared at that time, plate tectonics, which is envisioned as involving gradual changes generated by forces internal to the globe, fully conforms with uniformitarian principles. In contrast, impact processes, which have recently been cited to account for cataclysmic events such as massive tsunami deposits, incinerating wildfires, and global extinctions, carry genuinely revolutionary implications that are fatal to the uniformitarian principle itself."

"In August, 1933, at the in Chicago, was founded with an enrollment of 57 charter members and and as the first President and Secretary-Treasurer, respectively. Within five years, the Society had doubled in size, with members from the U.S.A. and ten other nations. Annual meetings were suspended during World War II (1942 through 1945) and when it reconvened in 1946 the members adopted the name “”. By that time personal and professional antagonisms had arisen that threatened to fragment the Society and led, in 1949, to the resignation of Nininger and his wife. Throughout the 1950s the Society was widely regarded as a small, disorganized and essentially moribund organization. Revitalization of the Society began in the early 1960s after the advent of the when the Society steadily gained members with expertise in , , , and , and impact dynamics."

"Since the opening of the , images from have enabled us to map the surfaces of all the rocky planets and in the Solar System, thus transforming them from astronomical to geological objects. This progression of geology from being a strictly to one that is planetary-wide has provided us with a wealth of information on the evolutionary histories of other bodies and has supplied valuable new insights on the Earth itself. We have learned, for example, that the , and that the Moon subsequently accreted largely from debris of . The airless, waterless Moon still preserves a record of the impact events that have scarred its surface from the time its crust first formed. The much larger, volcanic Earth underwent a similar bombardment but most of the evidence was lost during the earliest 550 million years or so that elapsed before its first surviving systems of crustal rocks formed. Therefore, we decipher Earth's earliest history by investigating the record on the Moon. Lunar samples collected by the of the USA and the of the former USSR linked the Earth and Moon by their oxygen isotopic compositions and enabled us to construct a timescale of lunar events keyed to dated samples. They also permitted us to identify certain meteorites as fragments of the lunar crust that were projected to the Earth by impacts on the Moon. Similarly, analyses of the Martian surface soils and atmosphere by the and s led to the identification of meteorite fragments ejected by hypervelocity impacts on Mars. Images of Mars displayed land-forms wrought in the past by voluminous floodwaters, similar to those of the long-controversial of Washington State, USA. The record on Mars confirmed catastrophic flooding as a significant geomorphic process on at least one other planet. The first views of the Earth photographed by the crew of gave us the concept of and heightened international concern for protection of the global environment."

"Some of the al-Tusi material is known to have reached Rome in the 15th century... but there is no evidence that Copernicus ever saw it.…I personally believe he could have invented the method independently."

"Ibn al-Shatir’s forgotten model was rediscovered in the late 1950’s by E. S. Kennedy. .. In a preliminary work, the Commentariolus, he [Copernicus] employed an arrangement equivalent to Ibn al-Shatir's. Later, in De revolutionibus, he reverted to the use of eccentric orbits, adopting a model that was the sun-centered equivalent of the one developed at Maragha. Could Copernicus have been influenced by the Maragha astronomers or by Ibn al-Shatir? ...some of the al-Tusi material is known to have reached Rome in the 15th century (many Greek manuscripts were carried west after the fall of Constantinople in 1453), but there is no evidence that Copernicus ever saw It... . I personally believe he could have invented the method independently."